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. 2019 Jan 23;12:1035. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2018.01035

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Copyright © 2019 Gonçalves, Rodrigues, Bobermin, Zanotto, Vizuete, Quincozes-Santos, Souza and Leite.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Generation and release of MG and D-lactate in astrocytes. Methylglyoxal (MG) is produced from dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) by a deviation of the glycolytic pathway. MG is condensed with glutathione (GSH) and then, by sequential action of glyoxalases 1 and 2 (GLO1 and 2), generates D-lactate and recycles GSH. D-lactate leaves the cell via monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1) but disturbs lactate and pyruvate flows to mitochondria (not illustrated). MG and D-lactate leave the cell and act on the GABA_A receptor and hydroxy-carboxylic acid receptor 1 (HCAR1), respectively. Extrasynaptic GABA_A receptors of MG are not illustrated.