Table 2.
General characteristics of included studies
| Author (country, year of publication) | Baseline participant characteristics | Intervention group | Control group | Assessment of exposure | Outcome measures | Duration of study | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No of participants | Population (BMI; mean (SD)) | Age (years; mean (SD)*) | |||||||
| Astbury (UK, 2011)38 | 12 (0% female) | Healthy hospital workers (students and staff; 23.5 (1.7)) | 23.4 (7.3) | Breakfast arm: participants were asked to consume Rice Krispies (Kelloggs) and semi-skimmed milk at 7 45 am. After 150 min, a liquid pre-load meal was given. Lunch meal was provided 90 min later. | No breakfast arm: only pre-load and lunch meal provided. | Direct visual monitoring | Energy intake | 7 days | |
| Betts (UK, 2014)39 | 33 (64% female) | Healthy normal and overweight community dwelling adults (24.4 (22)) |
36 (11) | Breakfast: energy intake of >700 kcal before 11 am daily, with at least half consumed within 2 hours of waking. | No breakfast arm: plain water only until noon daily. | Self administered intake | Weight loss in kg, energy intake | 6 weeks | |
| Chowdhury (UK, 2016)23 | 23 (65% female) | Healthy obese community dwellers (33 (4.9)) |
44 (10) | Breakfast arm: energy intake ≥700 kcal before 11 am daily, with at least half consumed within 2 hours of waking. | No breakfast arm: fasting until noon each day | 7 day food diary | Weight loss in kg, energy intake | 6 weeks | |
| Clayton (UK, 2015)40 | 10 (0% female) | Healthy active community dwellers who regularly consume breakfast (23.5 (3.2)) |
22 (3) | Breakfast arm: participants consumed a standardised breakfast of 25% estimated daily energy requirements, breakfast consisted of crisped rice cereal, semi-skimmed milk, white bread, butter, strawberry jam, and orange juice. After 4.5 hours, ad libitum lunch was provided, and then after 11 hours, ad libitum dinner | No breakfast arm: participants ingested water (624 mL) to match water contained in the breakfast group, and nothing else until lunch. | Direct visual monitoring | Energy intake | 2×24 h | |
| Dhurandhar (US, 2014)49 | 204 (82.6% female) | Healthy overweight and obese adult community dwellers | 42 (11.2) | Intervention in two groups—habitual breakfast skippers and breakfast eaters. Breakfast arm: received the same pamphlet and instructions for participants to consume breakfast before 10 am every day, accompanied with healthy breakfast food suggestions. | No breakfast arm: received the same pamphlet with instructions for participants not to consume any kJ before 11 am every day (water, 0 kJ beverages allowed). | 7 day food diary | Weight loss in kg | 16 weeks | |
| Farshchi (UK, 2005)42 | 10 (100% female) | Lean healthy hospital workers (medical students and clinicians; 23.2 (1.6)) | 25.5 (5.7) | Participants allocated to two intervention arms, differing by timing of standardised meal consumption. Breakfast arm: received bran cereal between 7 and 8 am, and a chocolate covered cookie between 10 30 and 11 am. | No breakfast arm: received a chocolate covered cookie between 10 30 and 11 am, and bran cereal between 12 and 12 30 am. | Direct visual monitoring | Weight loss in kg, energy intake | 2×14 days | |
| Geliebter (US, 2014)43 |
36 (50% female) | Healthy overweight adult community dwellers (32 (4.7)) | 33 (7.5) | Oat porridge arm: oat porridge made with whole milk served with 200 mL of decaffeinated coffee. Frosted cornflake arm: Kellogg’s Frosted Flakes served with low fat milk with 200 mL of decaffeinated coffee. | No breakfast arm (control): 350 mL of water with 200 mL of decaffeinated coffee. | Direct visual monitoring | Weight loss in kg | 4 weeks | |
| LeCheminant (US, 2017)24 | 49 (100% female) | Healthy women who did not regularly consume breakfast aged 18-55 years | Not reported | Breakfast arm: energy intake ≥15% of their total energy intake within 1.5 hours of waking, and finished by 8 30 am. | No breakfast arm: fasting until 11 30 am each day. | 7 day food diary | Weight loss in kg, energy intake | 4 weeks | |
| Levitsky study 2 (US, 2013)44 | 16 (81% female) | Healthy university students (24.1 (2.2)) | 24.0 (2.8) | Two groups matched by body weight. Breakfast arm: ad libitum breakfast from 8 45 am, followed by lunch, snacks, and dinner as above. |
No breakfast arm: no food or drink before 11 am. Lunch, snacks, and dinner served buffet style from 11 am and 5 pm, respectively. | Direct visual monitoring | Energy intake | 2×24 hours | |
| Reeves (UK, 2014)45 | 37 (57% female) | Healthy adult community dwellers (group 1, normal weight, 21.31 (1.79); group 2, overweight, 29.63 (5.32)) | Group 1, 29.5 (7.9); group 2, 36.2 (16.3) |
Intervention in two groups—normal weight and overweight. Breakfast arm: first meal to be consumed within 1 hour of waking. | No breakfast arm: no meals to be consumed before midday. | 7 day food diary | Energy intake | 2×7 days | |
| Schlundt (US, 1992)46 | 52 (100% female) | Community dwelling obese women (30.6 (0.5)) | 18-55 years | Intervention in two groups—habitual breakfast skippers and breakfast eaters. Breakfast arm: received weight loss instructions to consume three meals per day, including breakfast. | No breakfast arm: received weight loss instructions to consume only two meals per day, lunch and dinner. | 7 day food diary | Weight loss in kg | 12 weeks | |
| Thomas (US, 2015)47 | 18 (100% female) | Healthy overweight women who either regularly omitted or consumed breakfast (median 30.2 (IQR 28.6-33.7)) |
Median 29 (IQR 27-32) | Breakfast arm: 250 mL water plus wheat flakes plus milk, scrambled eggs, and orange juice. | No breakfast arm: 250 mL water only | Direct visual monitoring | Energy intake | 2×8 hours | |
| Yoshimura (Japan, 2017)48 | 20 (100% female) | Healthy, habitual breakfast eating women | 21.8 (0.9) | Breakfast arm: 30% daily energy intake. | No breakfast arm: water only until noon. | Self administered intake | Energy intake | 2×24 hours | |
BMI=body mass index; IQR=interquartile range; SD=standard deviation; UK=United Kingdom; US=United States. 1 kcal=4.18 kJ=0.00418 MJ.
*
Unless stated otherwise.