Table 2.

Effects of nanoparticles (NPs) on Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling.

NPs	Charge/Surface Modification	Size (nm)	Zeta Potential (mV)	Activity of mTOR	Ref.
PS 1	Positive/NH2	62 nm	+34.97 in dH2O −12.33 in DMEM	inhibited	[22]
PS 1	Positive/NH2	117 ± 17 nm	+54.4 in PBS	inhibited	[23]
Iron oxide	Negative/N.A. 2	51 nm	−39.3 in dH2O	inhibited	[24]
Zinc oxide	N.A. 2/N.A. 2	N.A.2	N.A. 2	inhibited	[111]
PS 1	Positive/NH2	30.6 ± 6.1 nm	+39.1 ± 6.5 in PBS	inhibited	[33]
nano-TiO2	N.A. 2/N.A. 2	21 nm	N.A. 2	inhibited	[112]
UCNP Upconversion NPs	Positive/poly-(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH)	110 nm	+35 in PBS	inhibited	[113]
SWCNT functionalized single-walled carbon nanotube	N.A. 2/COOH	N.A. 2	N.A. 2	inhibited	[25]
SWCNT functionalized single-walled carbon nanotube	N.A. 2/N.A. 2	N.A. 2	N.A. 2	inhibited	[114]
Silica	N.A. 2/N.A. 2	62.1 ± 7.2 nm	−40 in dH2O	inhibited	[115]
PAMAM polyamidoamine dendrimers	N.A. 2/N.A. 2	N.A. 2	N.A. 2	inhibited	[116]
Layered double hydroxide (LDH) NPs LDH-VP16 nanocomposites	Positive/Etoposide (VP16)	105 nm	+39.9 in PBS	inhibited	[117]
Bismuth NPs (BiNP)	Negative/N.A. 2	63.72 nm in water 52.46 nm and 52.92 nm in PBS and DMEM	−27.43 ± 0.39 in dH2O −10.71 ± 0.53 in PBS −11.38 ± 0.5 in DMEM	inhibited	[118]
Mesoporous silica NPs (MSNs)	N.A. 2/BFA (Brefeldin A)	72 nm	N.A.	inhibited	[119]
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)	Negative/COOH	≈30–50 (outer), ≈5–12 (inner)	−30.5 ± 74.2 in ultrapure dH2O	inhibited	[120]
Silica	Positive/NH2	28.6 ± 4.2 nm	+36.9 ± 8.2 in PBS	activated	[33]
Silica	Negative/OH	31.2 ± 5.5 nm	−40.3 ± 7.4 in PBS	activated	[33]
Copper Oxide	Negative/N.A. 2	56.2 ± 22.9 nm in media 85.6 ± 27.2 nm in water	−0.057 in dH2O	activated	[121]
Gold NPs	N.A. 2/N.A. 2	2 nm	N.A. 2	activated	[122]
Gold NPs	N.A. 2/N.A. 2	30 nm	N.A. 2	activated	[123]
PS	Negative/COOH	119 ± 19 nm	−36.2 in PBS	activated	[23]

¹ PS: Polystyrene; ² N.A.: Not assessed; NH₂: Amino group; COOH: Carboxyl group; OH: Hydroxyl group; mTOR: Mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin.