Table 1.
Characteristics of subjects according to rate of eating and degree of chewing among Japanese preschool children a.
| Total | Rate of Eating | p Trend b | Degree of Chewing | p Trend b | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Slow | Medium | Fast | Not Well | Medium | Well | |||||||||||
| (n = 4451) | (n = 919) | (n = 1908) | (n = 624) | (n = 954) | (n = 2874) | (n = 623) | ||||||||||
| Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |||
| Sex (%) | ||||||||||||||||
| Boy | 52.4 | 46.1 | 54.8 | 65.1 | <0.001 | 64.1 | 51.0 | 41.7 | <0.001 | |||||||
| Girl | 47.5 | 53.9 | 45.2 | 34.9 | 36.0 | 49.0 | 58.3 | |||||||||
| Age (months) | 76.7 | 3.5 | 76.2 | 3.5 | 77.0 | 3.5 | 77.4 | 3.5 | <0.001 | 76.9 | 3.5 | 76.7 | 3.5 | 76.6 | 3.5 | 0.07 |
| Body height (cm) | 115.2 | 5.5 | 113.8 | 5.3 | 115.7 | 5.4 | 117.7 | 5.2 | <0.001 | 116.1 | 5.8 | 115 | 5.5 | 114.4 | 5.0 | <0.001 |
| Body weight (kg) | 20.7 | 3.2 | 19.6 | 2.5 | 20.9 | 3.0 | 22.9 | 4.0 | <0.001 | 21.5 | 3.9 | 20.5 | 3.0 | 19.9 | 2.6 | <0.001 |
| Residential block (%) | ||||||||||||||||
| Hokkaido and Tohoku | 13.1 | 14.4 | 12.2 | 11.9 | 0.65 | 13.7 | 12.7 | 14.1 | 0.69 | |||||||
| Kanto | 21.2 | 21.6 | 21.1 | 20.7 | 18.7 | 22.1 | 21.2 | |||||||||
| Hokuriku and Tokai | 24.8 | 23.7 | 25.2 | 26.8 | 26.8 | 24.7 | 21.8 | |||||||||
| Kinki | 12.1 | 11.3 | 12.2 | 14.3 | 13.4 | 11.4 | 13.2 | |||||||||
| Chugoku and Shikoku | 14.4 | 13.6 | 15.2 | 14.6 | 14.3 | 14.4 | 14.5 | |||||||||
| Kyushu and Okinawa | 14.4 | 15.4 | 14.3 | 11.9 | 13.1 | 14.7 | 15.3 | |||||||||
| Paternal educational attainment (%) | ||||||||||||||||
| High school | 50.7 | 50.7 | 51.5 | 48.4 | 0.31 | 49.3 | 51.7 | 48.5 | 0.61 | |||||||
| Junior college or vocational technical school | 19.4 | 20.0 | 18.8 | 19.1 | 19.0 | 19.0 | 21.7 | |||||||||
| University | 29.9 | 29.3 | 29.7 | 32.5 | 31.8 | 29.3 | 29.9 | |||||||||
| Maternal educational attainment (%) | ||||||||||||||||
| High school | 40.2 | 42.1 | 39.8 | 35.6 | 0.008 | 41.2 | 40.0 | 39.7 | 0.71 | |||||||
| Junior college or vocational technical school | 44.0 | 42.5 | 44.7 | 46.3 | 42.0 | 44.7 | 43.5 | |||||||||
| University | 15.8 | 15.4 | 15.5 | 18.1 | 16.8 | 15.3 | 16.9 | |||||||||
| Paternal weight status (%) | ||||||||||||||||
| Underweight (BMI <18.5 kg/m2) | 2.9 | 3.2 | 2.8 | 1.9 | 0.005 | 3.4 | 2.6 | 3.4 | 0.28 | |||||||
| Normal (BMI 18.5–24.9 kg/m2) | 70.3 | 71.6 | 69.7 | 68.1 | 68.1 | 70.9 | 70.8 | |||||||||
| Overweight/obese (BMI ≥25.0 kg/m2) | 26.9 | 25.2 | 27.5 | 30.0 | 28.5 | 26.5 | 25.8 | |||||||||
| Maternal weight status (%) | ||||||||||||||||
| Underweight (BMI <18.5 kg/m2) | 15.8 | 17.2 | 14.7 | 14.7 | 0.03 | 14.9 | 15.5 | 18.3 | 0.02 | |||||||
| Normal (BMI 18.5–24.9 kg/m2) | 75.2 | 73.7 | 77.2 | 73.6 | 74.7 | 75.6 | 73.8 | |||||||||
| Overweight (BMI ≥25.0 kg/m2) | 9.0 | 9.1 | 8.1 | 11.7 | 10.4 | 8.8 | 7.9 | |||||||||
| Number of siblings (%) | ||||||||||||||||
| 0 | 14.5 | 17.5 | 11.7 | 13.8 | <0.001 | 16.6 | 13.5 | 16.1 | 0.11 | |||||||
| 1 | 53.6 | 53.6 | 53.8 | 53.0 | 56.0 | 52.8 | 53.8 | |||||||||
| ≥2 | 31.9 | 28.9 | 34.4 | 33.2 | 27.5 | 33.7 | 30.2 | |||||||||
| Physical activity (%) | ||||||||||||||||
| Low | 4.4 | 6.2 | 2.7 | 4.3 | <0.001 | 7 | 3.8 | 3.4 | <0.001 | |||||||
| Middle | 20.7 | 24.9 | 17.8 | 16.5 | 22.5 | 20.9 | 16.7 | |||||||||
| High | 74.9 | 68.9 | 79.6 | 79.2 | 70.4 | 75.3 | 70.9 | |||||||||
| Birthweight (%) | ||||||||||||||||
| <2500 g | 10.7 | 12.6 | 9.4 | 8.8 | <0.001 | 9.8 | 10.7 | 12 | 0.16 | |||||||
| 2500–3999 g | 88.3 | 86.8 | 89.5 | 89.3 | 89.3 | 88.2 | 87.2 | |||||||||
| ≥4000 g | 1.0 | 0.6 | 1.1 | 1.9 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 0.8 | |||||||||
| Energy intake (kcal/d) | 1134 | 305 | 1120 | 304 | 1137 | 302 | 1171 | 313 | <0.001 | 1132 | 292 | 1132 | 304 | 1148 | 329 | 0.38 |
| Nutrient intake | ||||||||||||||||
| Protein (% of energy) | 13.1 | 1.8 | 13.2 | 1.8 | 13.1 | 1.8 | 13.0 | 1.7 | 0.12 | 13 | 1.8 | 13.1 | 1.7 | 13.4 | 1.9 | <0.001 |
| Fat (% of energy) | 28.1 | 4.7 | 28.5 | 4.8 | 27.9 | 4.7 | 27.6 | 4.7 | <0.001 | 28.2 | 5.0 | 28.1 | 4.6 | 27.8 | 4.9 | 0.15 |
| Carbohydrate (% of energy) | 57.4 | 5.6 | 57.0 | 5.7 | 57.6 | 5.6 | 57.9 | 5.4 | <0.001 | 57.4 | 5.9 | 57.4 | 5.4 | 57.4 | 5.9 | 0.89 |
| Dietary fiber (g/1000 kcal) | 5.3 | 1.2 | 5.3 | 1.1 | 5.3 | 1.2 | 5.2 | 1.1 | 0.16 | 5.2 | 1.2 | 5.3 | 1.1 | 5.5 | 1.2 | <0.001 |
a Values are means and SD for continuous variables and the percentage of participants for categorical variables. b A linear trend test was used for continuous variables; a Mantel–Haenszel chi-square test was used for categorical variables.