. 2018 Dec 25;11(1):11. doi: 10.3390/v11010011

Table 1.

Emergence and distribution of the mosquito-borne viruses in the islands of the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Caribbean area.

Area	Archipelago	Island	Date	Virus	Family	Genus	Origin	Ref.	Comments/ ProMED ref.
Indian Ocean	Seychelles	Seychelles	1977–1978	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[25,165]	Genbank: L10048
			1979	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[38]	Neutralizing antibodies, first report in the Indian Ocean
			1979	SINV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[38]	Neutralizing antibodies, first report in the Indian Ocean
			2016	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[28]	Recent introduction from China
	Comoros	Grande Comore	1948	DENV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[166]	Probably DENV-1
			1984	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[166]
			1993	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[166]
			2005-2006	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[167]
			2007	RFV	Phenuiviridae	Phlebovirus	Human	[37]	First case in Indian Ocean Islands
		Mayotte	1943	DENV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[24]	Unknown serotype
			2004	RVF	Phenuiviridae	Phlebovirus	Livestock	[36]	Sporadic cases in livestock
			1993	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[168]	Probably DENV-1
			2005–2006	DENV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[169]	Unknown serotype
			2005–2006	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[170]
			2007-2008	RFV	Phenuiviridae	Phlebovirus	Human	[36]	First autochthonous case
			2010	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[23,171]
	Islands of Mascarene	La Réunion	1978	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[25,26]
			2004	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[27]
			2005	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[39,40]	Introduced from Lamu 2004
			2010	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[171]
		Mauritius	1978–1979	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[29,30]
		Mauritius	2005	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[172]
	Maldives Islands	Island not specified	1979	DENV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[173]	Unknown serotype
		Island not specified	2004–2005	DENV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[31,174]	Unknown serotype
		Malé	2006	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[175]	Malé and other islands of the Maldives
		Malé	2011	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[32,173]	Largest epidemic, Malé and other islands of the Maldives
		Dhiffushi	2015	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[176]
	Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Island not specified	1988	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[33]	Serological survey
		Island not specified	1988	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[33]	Serological survey
		Island not specified	1988	JEV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[33]	Serological survey
		Island not specified	1988	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[33]	Serological survey
		Island not specified	1988	KFD	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[33]	Serological survey
		Island not specified	1988	LGTV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[33]	Serological survey
		Island not specified	2009–2010	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[34]
		Island not specified	2013	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[35]
Pacific	Polynesia	American Samoa	1972	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[52]
			1975	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[52]
			1979	RRV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human, rat, dog, pig, chicken	[177]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Huaan	[20,41]
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[178]
		Cook Islands	1980	RRV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human, pig, dogs, cattle, mosquitoes	[179]
		Cook Islands	2014	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[151] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140328.2365267
		French Polynesia	1967	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[180]	Tahiti
			1971	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[181]	Tahiti
			1975	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[182]
			1979	DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[182]
			2013	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[151,183]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[20,41]	CHIKV imported into French Polynesia from a traveller returning from Guadeloupe
		Hawaii	1912	DENV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[184]	Undetermined serotype
			2001	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[43]	Traveler returning from French Polynesia
			2004–2005	JEV, SLEV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Resident and migratory birds	[185]
			2015	DENV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[186,187]	Undetermined serotype
		Samoa	2014	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[183]
		Samoa	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[41]
		Tokelau	2014	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[183]
		Tokelau	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[41]
		Tonga	1974	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[188]
			1975	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[182]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[41]
			2014	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[183]
		Tuvalu	1974	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[182]
		Wallis and Fatuna Island	1975	RRV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[189]
		Wallis and Fatuna Island	1976	DENV-1 DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Mosquitoes	[190]
		Easter Island	2014	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[191]
		Niue	1972	DENV-2	Flavivirida	Flavivirus	Human	[192]	DHF
	Micronesia	Marshall Islands	1974	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[182]
		Marshall Islands	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[193]
		Nauru	1974	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[182]
		Palau	1995	DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[194]
			2000	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[42]
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[195]	Locally acquired
		Kiribati	1974	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[182]
		Kiribati	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[195]
		Yap Island	1995	DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[196]
			2004	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[197]
			2007	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[15]
			2013	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[198] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140114.2171369
	Melanesia	Fiji	1943–1944	DENV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[199]	First report but unknown serotype
			1959–1960	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[199]
			1959–1960	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[199]
			1959–1960	JEV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human, fowls	[199]
			1979	RRV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[46] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140328.2365267
			2015	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[193]
		New Caledonia	1971	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[200]
			1975	RRV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Mosquitoes	[189]
			1975	DENV-1 DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[201]
			1979–1980	RRV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[202]
			1989	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[203]
			2011	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[204]	GenBank: HE806461
			2013	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[151]	Imported French Polynesia
		Vanuatu	1975	DENV-1 DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Mosquitoes	[182]
			1975	RRV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Mosquitoes	[189]
			2015	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20150501.3334549
		Solomon Islands	1982	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[182]
			2015	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[193]
			2016	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[44]
		Papua New Guinea	1956–1957	MVE	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[205]	Serological survey
			1963	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[206]
			1963	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[206]
1971			SINV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[207]
1989			JEV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[208]
2012			ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[20]
2012			CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[209]
2016			DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[44]
Caribbean	Lucayan	Turks and Caicos Islands	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[140]
		Turks and Caicos Islands	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		The Bahamas	2003	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[77]	Second case in the Caribbean
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[140]
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
	Greater Antilles	Cayman Islands	2001	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[77]	First Case of WNV in the Caribbean (August 2001) http://www.promedmail.org/post/20011016.2538
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[140]
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		Cuba	1969	EEEV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Field	[62]
			1981	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[211]	This case occurred four years after DENV-1 had been introduced. First case of Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) in the Americas
			2012	DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[212]	DHF
			2004	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Migratory birds	[77]
			2005	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human, horses	[77]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[140]
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		Dominican Republic	2002	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Horses, chickens and resident birds	[77]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[213]
			2015	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	ProMED	According to PAHO, the first case in the Caribbean emerged in November 2015. This case was reported on May 2015, may be the first Zika case outside of Brazil in the Americas. http://www.promedmail.org/post/20150605.3412519
		Haiti	1969–1971	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human, mosquitoes	[214]	DHF
			1972	WNV, SLEV, EEEV	Flaviviridae, Togaviridae	Flavivirus, Alphavirus	Birds and bats	[215]
			1994	DENV-1 DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[216]
			2013	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[217]
			2014–2015	MAYV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[66]
			2016	CHIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Mosquitoes	[218]	New ECSA subgroup
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[219]
			2016	SPONV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Mosquito	[220]
		Jamaica	1956	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[221]
			1963	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[59]
			1962	EEEV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[221]
			1966	CVV	Peribunyaviridae	Orthobunyavirus	Mosquitoes	[222]
			1960–1975	SLEV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[221]
			1977	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[60]	First detection in the Americas, probably from Africa
			2002	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Birds	[77]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,140,223]
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[224]
		Puerto Rico	2004	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Migratory birds	[77,225]
			1963	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[59,226]	First virological confirmation of DENV in Puerto Rico
			1969	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[226]
			1977	DENV-1	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[226]	Second case in the Caribbean
			1981	DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[227]
			2007	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[228]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,140,223]
			2015	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[229]
	Greater Antilles	US Virgin Islands	1981	DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[230]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,223] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140614.2539532
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		British Virgin Islands	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140114.2172714
		British Virgin Islands	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		Anguilla	1964	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[59]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,140,223]
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		Antigua and Barbuda	1964	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[59]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140427.243388
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		Saint Martin	2010–2012	DENV-1 DENV-2 DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[231]
			2013	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	ProMED	First local transmission in the Western Hemisphere http://www.promedmail.org/post/20131209.2099940
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		Saba	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		St Eustatius	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,223] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140922.2794035
		St Eustatius	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
		Saint Barthélemy	1981	DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[230]
			2010–2012	DENV-1 DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[231]
			2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,223] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140102.2148245
			2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
Saint Kitts and Nevis		1964	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[59]
		2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,223] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140220.229088
		2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
Montserrat		2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[223]
Montserrat		2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
Guadeloupe		2002	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Horses, chickens, resident birds	[77]
		2013	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,223] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20131227.2139145
		2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
Windward Islands	Dominica	1981	DENV-4	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[232]	First detection in the Americas, probably introduced from Pacific Islands
		2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,223] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140118.2181292
		2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
	Martinique	1964	DENV-3	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[59]
		2013	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13,223] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20131209.209994
		2015	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
	Saint Lucia	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[140]
	Saint Lucia	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
	Saint Vincent and the Gredines	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[140]
	Saint Vincent and the Gredines	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
	Grenada	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[233]
	Grenada	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
	Barbados	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140809.2674777
	Barbados	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
	Trinidad and Tobago	1953	DENV-2	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[56]	First introduction to the Americas
		1954	MAYV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[65]
		1955	OROV	Peribunyaviridae	Orthobunyavirus	Mosquitoes	[69]
		1955–1959	BSBV, IERIV, LUKV	Peribunyaviridae	Orthobunyavirus	Mosquitoes	[70]
		1957	SLEV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Birds and mosquitoes	[71,72]
		1962	ILHV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[74]
		1965	RESV	Peribunyaviridae	Orthobunyavirus	Mosquitoes	[75]
		2004	WNV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Horses and birds	[77]
		2006-2009	MADV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	horses	[73]
		2007	MUCV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Mosquitoes, mammals	[64]
		2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[140]
		2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
Leeward Antilles	Aruba	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140205.2257138
	Aruba	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
	Curaçao	2014	CHIKV	Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Human	[13] ProMED	http://www.promedmail.org/post/20140809.2674777
	Curaçao	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]
	Bonaire	2016	ZIKV	Flaviviridae	Flavivirus	Human	[210]

Dengue virus (DENV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), Rift Valley fever (RVF), Zika virus (ZIKV), Japanese encephalitis (JEV), West Nile virus (WNV), Kyasanur Forest disease (KFD), Langat virus (LGTV), Ross River virus (RRV), Murray Valley encephalitis (MVE), Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus (EEEV), Saint Louis encephalitis (SLEV), Mayaro virus (MAYV), Oropuche virus (OROV) Cache Valley virus (CVV), Bushbush virus (BSBV), Ieri virus (IERIV), Lukuni virus (LUKV), Ilheus virus (ILHV), Restan virus (RESV), Madariaga virus (MADV), Mucambo virus (MUCV), World Health Organization (WHO).