Fig. 1.

Diagram of the central autonomic network. Visceral information is relayed through the NTS and PBN to forebrain areas such as the hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and insular cortex. The insular cortex has dense reciprocal connections with the ACC, lateral hypothalamic area, NTS, and PBN. These regions are also reciprocally connected. Infarction of the insular cortex may result in the loss of overall autonomic modulation and a decline in parasympathetic tone and baroreflex sensitivity, as well as a shift towards sympathetic dominance. ACC, anterior cingulate cortex; CeA, central amygdala; PBN, parabrachial nucleus; PAG, periaqueductal gray; NA, nucleus ambiguus; DMV, dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus; NTS, nucleus of the solitary tract; VLM, ventrolateral medulla.