Table 1.

Additive technologies developed for manufacturing of photonic and optoelectronic components

Additive technology	Commercial printers available	Building volumea) [cm3]	Feature size [µm]	Printing speeda) [mm s−1]	Optical/electronic material demonstrated	Multimaterial capability	Demonstrated photonic and optoelectronic devices
Laser stereolithography	Yes	103–106	10–100a)	–	Acrylates, epoxies, nanocomposites	No	Optical windows
Digital light processing	Yes	102–104	30–100a)	–	Acrylates, glassesb)	No	Lenses, optical windows, optical sensors
Continuous digital light processing	Yes	102–103	30–100a)	0.03	Acrylates	No	–
Multiphoton stereolithography	Yes	3 × 10−5–3 × 102	0.2–10a)	0.1–10	Acrylates, epoxides, nanocomposites	No	Microlenses, optical sensors, photonic crystals, waveguides, metamaterials
Fused deposition modeling	Yes	103–106	100–500a)	10–103	Thermoplastic polymers, nanocomposites	Yes	Microwave and terahertz lenses
Direct ink writing	Yes	102–103	10–100a)	0.1–102	Glasses,b) acrylates, epoxies, silk, elastomers, nanocomposites, conjugated polymers, conductive inks	Yes	Waveguides, photonic crystals, LEDs, optical windows
Electrospinning	Yes	1–102	0.1–1a)	1	Thermoplastic polymers, conjugated polymers, nanocomposites	Yes	Waveguides, single‐photon sources, optical amplifiers, optical sensors, lasers
Inkjet	Yes	Typical printing area 102 cm2	20–80a)	–	Conjugated polymers, conductive inks, perovskites, block copolymers, 2D materials	Yes	Photodiodes, solar cells, organic LED, saturable absorbers, optical resonators, lasers, color displays
Polyjet	Yes	104	16–30a)	–	Acrylates	Yes	Waveguides, photonic crystals
Filament‐fed laser heating process	No	–	300c)	–	Glasses	No	Optical windows
Meniscus‐guided 3D writing	No	–	0.1–1d)	–	Thermoplastic polymers	No	Waveguides
Microcontact printing	Yes	Typical printing area 102 cm2	0.05a)	–	Quantum dots, colloids, proteins	Yes	Luminescent patterns
Laser‐induced forward transfer	No	–	0.5–10e)	–	Photoresists, conductive pastes, conjugated polymers	Yes	Microlenses, metal contacts, terahertz metamaterials, polymer LEDs
Micro‐ and nanofluidics	No	–	0.07f)	–	Conjugated polymers, sol–gel, block copolymers	Yes	Waveguides, lasers
Continuous flow lithography	No	–	0.4g)	–	Acrylates, nanocomposites	Yes	Luminescent microparticles, barcodes

^a)Data are for commercially available printers

^b)Postprocessing thermal treatment needed

^c)Ref. 184

^d)Ref. 187

^e)Ref. 194

^f)Ref. 201

^g)Ref. 204.