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. 2019 Jan 15;20(2):335. doi: 10.3390/ijms20020335

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© 2019 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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The interaction mechanisms of plants-pathogens from three interacted and miRNA regulation layers. (A) The three defensive layers in plants including the PTI, ETI, and cross-kingdom RNA interference (CKRI), and the three infection layers in pathogens including pattern recognition receptors (PRR), effector and CKRI. (B) The evolution of NBS-LRR genes and their regulator miRNAs. (C) The three strategies of defense to biotic stresses including uORF [83], host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) [84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92] and spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) [3,93,94,95,96] in plants.