Table 1.
A summary of Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) biomarkers.
| Biomarker | Paper | Sample Source | Results |
|---|---|---|---|
| NF-H | (20) | Human CSF | Mean levels were significantly higher in AIS A and B patients than in AIS C and D patients. |
| NF-L | (21) | Human CSF | Patients with complete motor loss showed higher levels compared to patients with incomplete motor loss. |
| NF-L | (22) | Human Serum | Elevated levels were associated with more severe SCI and poorer neurological prognosis. |
| pNF-H | (23) | Human Plasma | Increased levels were associated with increased axonal/neuronal disruption and differentiated severe, moderate, and mild SCI cases based on pNF-H concentration. |
| pNF-H | (24) | Rat Serum | Presence of pNF-H distinguished injured rats from non-injured rats. |
| pNF-H | (25) | Human Serum | Higher levels were associated with more severe SCI. |
| GFAP | (26) | Human CSF | At 24 h, levels of GFAP predicted future AIS graded injury severities as well as 6-month post injury segmental motor improvements. |
| GFAP | (21) | Human CSF | Patients with complete motor loss showed higher levels compared to patients with incomplete motor loss. |
| GFAP | (27) | Human CSF | Higher levels correlated with higher injury severities and predicted future neurological outcome. |
| GFAP | (20) | Human CSF | No significant correlations between AIS grade and injury severity. |
| GFAP | (25) | Human Serum | Higher levels were associated with more severe SCI. |
| NSE | (25) | Human Serum | Higher levels were associated with more severe SCI. |
| NSE | (20) | Human CSF | Mean levels were significantly higher in AIS A and B patients than in AIS C and D patients. |
| NSE | (28) | Rat Serum | Higher levels were associated with more severe SCI. |
| NSE | (29) | Rat CSF and Serum | Increased levels correlated with higher neurological defects and injury severity as well as increased in concentration in a stepwise manner to peak at 2 h postinjury. |
| S100-β | (29) | Rat CSF and Serum | Increased levels correlated with higher neurological defects and injury severity as well as increased in concentration in a stepwise manner to peak at 2 h postinjury. |
| S100-β | (20) | Human CSF | Mean levels were significantly higher in AIS A and B patients than in AIS C and D patients. |
| S100-β | (27) | Human CSF | Higher levels correlated with higher injury severities and predicted future neurological outcome. |
| S100-β | (28) | Rat Serum | No significant difference in concentrations of injured and non-injured rats. |
| Tau | (20) | Human CSF | No significant correlations between AIS grade and injury severity. |
| C-Tau | (27) | Human CSF | Higher levels correlated with higher injury severities and predicted future neurological outcome. |
| MAP2 | (30) | Rat Dendrites | Presence of MAP2-immunoreactive dendrites extending into white matter with extensive beading patterns indicated worse behavioral recovery. |
| MBP | (31) | Mouse and Rat oligodendrocytes | Possible development of new myelin. |
| MBP | (32) | Swine CSF | Concentrations in injured swine were significantly higher than healthy controls. Injured swine MBP levels steadily increased over a 3-h period, possible indicating remyelination efforts. |
| MMPs | (33) | Human Serum | MMP-8 and 9 were upregulated post injury. |
| MMPs | (34) | Mouse and Rat CSF | Increased concentrations of MMP-8 correlated with poorer neurological recovery. |
| MMPs | (14) | Mouse and Rat CSF | Significant correlation between elevated MMP-9 levels and impaired neurological recovery. |
| MMPs | (35) | Canine CSF | MMP-9 levels 7 days postinjury were elevated in dogs that had the more severe IVDH injuries. |
| TGF-B | (36) | Human post-mortem spinal cord tissue | Injured tissue showed high levels of TGF-B1 two days postinjury, and TGF-B2 24 h postinjury. |
| TGF-B | (37) | Human Serum | An initial decrease in the concentrations of these cytokines was followed by a significant increase. 12 weeks postinjury, the observed elevated levels were correlated with the absence of neurological recovery. |
| IGF-1 | (37) | Human Serum | An initial decrease in the concentrations of these cytokines was followed by a significant increase. 12 weeks postinjury, the observed elevated levels were correlated with the absence of neurological recovery. |
| IGF-1 | (38) | Human Serum | Higher concentrations were correlated with greater neurological recovery. |
| sCD95L | (37) | Human Serum | An initial decrease in the concentrations of these cytokines was followed by a significant increase. 12 weeks postinjury, the observed elevated levels were correlated with the absence of neurological recovery. |
| sCD95L | (39) | Human Serum | Concentrations during the first week significantly decreased, followed by an increase in the second week, and reached peak expression during the 4th week post injury, possibly indicating the apoptotic effect to the spinal cord tissue. |
| sCD95L | (40) | Human Serum | Levels dropped at 4, 9, 12, and 24 h postinjury, and increased at 8 and 12 weeks. |
| sCD95L | (37) | Human Blood | High concentrations proved to be a marker for poor neurological improvement based on ASIA classification. |
| TNF-alpha | (41) | Human Serum | Patients who experienced an improvement in AIS grade also had a significant decrease of TNF-Alpha over 12 weeks. |
| TNF-alpha | (27) | Human CSF and Serum | Concentration predicted the AIS grade of the patient and the neurological recovery 6 months later. |
| TNF-alpha | (42) | Human CSF | No significant correlations were found between serum concentrations and injury severity and ASIA classification. |
| TNF-alpha | (43) | Human Serum | Increased concentrations were associated with an increased risk of NP |
| TNF-alpha | (44) | Rat and Mouse Serum | Elevated levels of IL-1B and IL-6 were found in injured rats when compared to non-injured controls. |
| ILs | (44) | Rat and Mouse Serum | Elevated levels of IL-1B and IL-6 were found in injured rats when compared to non-injured controls. |
| ILs | (27) | Human CSF | Higher levels of IL-6 and IL-8 correlated with higher injury severities and predicted future neurological outcome. |
| ILs | (42) | Human Serum | No associations between elevated serum concentration and injury degree were found. Alternatively, increased levels were correlated with injury complications i.e., NP, UTI, or pressure ulcers. |
| ILs | (41) | Human Serum | Concentrations between 4 h and 1-week postinjury did not correlate to any improvements or declines in neurological recovery. However, between 1 and 4 weeks it showed a significant drop exclusively in patients who experienced less improvement. |
| MCPs | (26) | Human CSF | 24 h postinjury MCP-1 levels could predict patients' ASIA grade. |
| MCPs | (27) | Human CSF | Significantly lower MCP-1 concentrations in the patient groups that achieved improvement vs. those who did not. |