Table 2.
Effects of training frequency on body composition, cholesterol concentrations, markers of inflammation, blood glucose and blood pressure (mean ± SD).
| Within-group changes | Main Effects | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EX1 | EX2 | EX3 | CON | Time | Time × Group | Group | |||||
| pre- | post- | pre- | post- | pre- | post- | pre- | post- | (P-value) | (P-value) | (P-value) | |
| Fat mass (kg) | 25.4 ± 6.6 | 24.7 ± 7.1 | 26.8 ± 8.9 | 26.4 ± 8.2 | 27.5 ± 8.3 | 26.4 ± 8.4*** | 22.4 ± 6.0 | 21.5 ± 6.1** | <0.001 | 0.265 | 0.138 |
| Fat-free mass (kg) | 47.9 ± 12.1 | 47.5 ± 12.1 | 47.9 ± 10.4 | 47.9 ± 10.2 | 49.5 ± 10.1 | 49.6 ± 10.0 | 48.7 ± 10.2 | 48.5 ± 10.4 | 0.722 | 0.199 | 0.199 |
| Abdominal fat mass (kg) | 2.7 ± 0.7 | 2.6 @*0.8 | 2.8 ± 0.9 | 2.7 ± 0.9 | 3.2 ± 1.2 | 3.0 ± 1.2* | 2.4 ± 0.6 | 2.2 ± 0.6*** | 0.016 | 0.289 | 0.049 |
| GLU (mmol⋅L-1) | 5.4 ± 0.5 | 5.4 ± 0.4 | 5.6 ± 0.6 | 5.9 ± 0.6* | 5.6 ± 0.7 | 5.8 ± 0.6 | 5.4 ± 0.5 | 5.5 ± 0.4 | 0.016 | 0.121 | 0.076 |
| INS (mmol⋅L-1) | 51.2 ± 32.9 | 58.2 ± 38.1 | 39.7 ± 22.1 | 56.7 ± 28.3** | 66.2 ± 37.3 | 73.2 ± 39.1 | 36.7 ± 20.4 | 49.5 ± 18.0** | <0.001 | 0.389 | 0.072 |
| HOMA-IR | 2.1 ± 1.4 | 2.1 ± 1.7 | 1.7 ± 1.0 | 2.5 ± 1.3*** | 2.6 ± 1.7 | 3.2 ± 1.7 | 1.6 ± 0.8 | 2.0 ± 0.8** | <0.001 | 0.460 | 0.026 |
| HOMA-β (%) | 88.2 ± 54.9 | 101.4 ± 62.1 | 63.1 ± 32.1 | 83.8 ± 30.4* | 97.5 ± 51.4 | 108 ± 66.3 | 66.5 ± 36.9 | 83.1 ± 30.4** | 0.001 | 0.865 | 0.095 |
| HbA1c (mmol⋅mol-1) | 35.3 ± 3.4 | 35.1 ± 3.6 | 35.0 ± 3.2 | 35.8 ± 2.9* | 36.8 ± 5.9 | 36.0 ± 5.0 | 34.8 ± 3.1 | 34.8 ± 3.1 | 0.785 | 0.064 | 0.663 |
| TC (mmol⋅L-1) | 5.6 ± 1.1 | 5.8 ± 1.0 | 5.5 ± 0.6 | 5.9 ± 0.7** | 5.6 ± 0.7 | 5.7 ± 0.7 | 5.9 ± 0.8 | 5.9 ± 0.7 | 0.006 | 0.150 | 0.829 |
| HDL (mmol⋅L-1) | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.7 ± 0.5* | 1.6 ± 0.6 | 1.8 ± 0.3*** | 1.5 ± 0.4 | 1.6 ± 0.5** | 1.9 ± 0.5 | 1.9 ± 0.5 | <0.001 | 0.155 | 0.184 |
| LDL (mmol⋅L-1) | 3.8 ± 1.1 | 3.6 ± 0.9 | 3.8 ± 0.7 | 3.7 ± 0.7 | 3.9 ± 0.7 | 3.6 ± 0.9* | 3.7 ± 0.6 | 3.7 ± 0.6 | 0.006 | 0.047 | 0.999 |
| TRIG (mmol⋅L-1) | 1.4 ± 0.6 | 1.3 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.3 ± 0.5 | 1.6 ± 1.0 | 1.6 ± 0.8 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 0.313 | 0.630 | 0.219 |
| Cortisol (nmol⋅L-1) | 360 ± 92 | 440 ± 91*** | 330 ± 95 | 420 ± 98** | 310 ± 89 | 410 ± 80*** | 330 ± 97 | 430 ± 100*** | <0.001 | 0.823 | 0.315 |
| IL-6 (pg⋅ml-1) | 1.8 ± 1.7 | 1.1 ± 0.8 | 1.5 ± 1.5 | 1.4 ± 1.7 | 1.2 ± 0.7 | 1.2 ± 1.3 | 1.1 ± 0.9 | 1.0 ± 1.3 | 0.546 | 0.290 | 0.370 |
| hs-CRP (mg⋅ml-1) | 2.6 ± 2.5 | 2.0 ± 1.9 | 1.7 ± 1.7 | 1.7 ± 1.5 | 2.3 ± 1.8 | 2.6 ± 2.1 | 1.5 ± 0.9 | 1.5 ± 1.3 | 0.817 | 0.210 | 0.142 |
| Adiponectin (μg⋅ml-1) | 9.2 ± 5.2 | 8.1 ± 4.3* | 8.4 ± 4.3 | 7.2 ± 3.3* | 7.8 ± 3.5 | 6.8 ± 2.8** | 8.9 ± 3.1 | 8.3 ± 3.8 | <0.001 | 0.823 | 0.510 |
| Leptin (ng⋅ml-1) | 53.3 ± 47.4 | 50.9 ± 41.3 | 49.7 ± 41.5 | 51.0 ± 37.2 | 43.4 ± 32.4 | 41.6 ± 28.6 | 35.2 ± 37.2 | 33.2 ± 31.4 | 0.426 | 0.818 | 0.374 |
| MCP-1 (pg⋅ml-1) | 365 ± 95 | 385 ± 88 | 387 ± 123 | 369 ± 138 | 374 ± 129 | 393 ± 154 | 415 ± 95 | 461 ± 112 | 0.110 | 0.257 | 0.408 |
| SBP (mmHg) | 140 ± 20 | 140 ± 20 | 155 ± 27 | 161 ± 32 | 142 ± 14 | 141 ± 18 | 149 ± 20 | 149 ± 17 | 0.506 | 0.601 | 0.052 |
| DBP (mmHg) | 77 ± 14 | 77 ± 14 | 80 ± 10 | 82 ± 10 | 76 ± 10 | 75 ± 14 | 79 ± 11 | 80 ± 11 | 0.679 | 0.890 | 0.315 |
∗Significant within-group change from pre to post (∗p < 0.05; ∗∗p < 0.01; ∗∗∗p < 0.001 versus baseline). GLU, blood glucose; INS, insulin; HOME-IR, Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance; HOMA- β, homeostatic model assessment for β-cell function; HbA1c, Hemoglobin A1c; TC, total cholesterol; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; TRIG, triglycerides; IL-6, interleukin-6; hs-CRP, high-sensitive C-reactive protein; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure.