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Temporal causal emergence. (A) Sm is constituted of second-order Markov elements. (B) Analysis at the micro timestep, in which AB = [11], specifies a cause–effect structure with two clustered concepts with low irreducibility. (C) The macro timestep {α,β} = [On, On] is a grouping over two micro timesteps. (D) The macro conceptual structure, which is more irreducible than the micro conceptual structure, is less clustered and has an additional concept (see text).
