Table 2.
Home country food plant and herbal ingredients used by Moroccan migrants in Piedmont
| Botanical name of the plant ingredient and its botanical family | Common English name | Recorded Arabic name | Locally acquired (L) (cultivated, purchased or gathered from the wild [G]) or informally imported from Morocco (I) | Part(s) used | Recorded food (F), medicinal (M), and food-medicinal (F/M) uses | Frequency of quotation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Allium sativum L., Amaryllidaceae | Garlic | Thawm, Tuma | L | Bu | F/M: consumed for treating cold and flu and as an anti-bacterial agent (also macerated in oil for 1 month and then oil used when needed) | ++ |
| Aloysia citriodora Palau, Verbenaceae | Lemon verbena | Luisa | L | Le | M: tea for treating digestive discomforts, headaches, fever, and as a relaxing agent | ++ |
| Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels, Sapotaceae | Argan | Argan | L and I | Fr- > Oil | F: garnishing cous cous; dip for flatbread; used to prepare amlou, a cream made with argan oil, almonds, and honey; M: externally applied for treating dermatitis and dry skin and on the hair (cosmetic); internally as a cholesterol reducer |
++ |
| Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.) L., Asteraceae | Wormwood | Sheeba | L and I | Le | M: tea (alone or added to mint tea), for treating cough | +++ |
| Capsicum annuum L., Solanaceae | Chili | Filfil harr | L | Fr | F/M: seasoning, considered “good for blood circulation” | ++ |
| Cinnamomum verum J.Presl, Lauraceae | Cinnamon | Karfa | L | Ba | F/M: spice for savory and sweet dishes; considered able to counteract diabetes and to relief menstrual pains | ++ |
| Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck, Rutaceae | Lemon | Liymun | L | Fr | F: pickled in brine M: ingredients for treating various diseases (mixed with turmeric, ginger, epazote, and sage) |
++ |
| Cladanthus mixtus (L.) Chevall. and Matricaria chamomilla L., Asteraceae | Moroccan and Italian chamomile | Babunj | L and I | M: tea used for treating stomach-aches and menstrual cramps, and as a calming agent; given to sick children | ++ | |
| Coriandrum sativum L., Apiaceae | Coriander | Kusbar | L | Fr | F: cooking spice for savory dishes; universal spice mix base | ++ |
| Crocus sativus L., Iridaceae | Saffron | Zaafaran al hur | L | Sg | F: cooking spice and colorant for savory and sweet dishes; F/M: consumed for treating stomach discomforts and fever during pregnancy |
++ |
| Cucurbita pepo L., Cucurbitaceae | Squash | Zeret gara | L | Se | F/M: consumed for prostate health | + |
| Cuminum cyminum L., Apiaceae | Cumin | Kamun | L | Fr | F: cooking spice for lentil and fish dishes; F/M: consumed as a means for treating stomach diseases, liver infections and as a digestive (also fruits macerated in water and then drunk) |
+++ |
| Curcuma longa L., Zingiberaceae | Turmeric | Karkoum | L and I | Ro | F: seasoning and colorant for savory dishes; F/M: consumed, it is considered able to treat colds and skin and liver diseases, and as a panacea (sometimes mixed with lemon juice and honey) |
+++ |
| Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin and Clemants, Amaranthaceae | Epazote | Mkhinza | I | Le | M: tea as an anti-fever agent (sometimes with lemon juice); also mixed with red onion and Bible hyssop to create a paste to be applied to the head | ++ |
| Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton, Zingiberaceae | Cardamom (green) | Huba alhal | L | Fr | F: cooking spice for savory dishes | + |
| Ficus carica L., Moraceae | Fig | Shreha | L | Fr | M: fruits left in olive oil for approx. One month, then oil drunk as needed for treating constipation | + |
| Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Apiaceae | Fennel | Alshamra | L | Fr | F: garnish for sweets and breads; cooking spice for savory dishes; M: tea considered good as a digestive (sometimes ground fruit with coffee), to promote lactation; calmative for children; and for losing weight |
++ |
| Juniperus oxycedrus L., Cupressaceae | Juniper (cade) | Quatran | I | Fr- > Oil | M: hair treatment (dying mean) | + |
| Laurus nobilis L., Lauraceae | Bay laurel | Wrqa sidna musar | L and I | Le | F: seasoning for chicken and red meat dishes; M: dried leaves are burned, and vapors inhaled for treating fever, to clear throat and help sleep |
++ |
| Lavandula spp., Lamiaceae | Lavender | Khzama | L | Fl | M: tea used for lung problems, rheumatisms, stomach-ache, bladder problems, and constipation | ++ |
| Lawsonia inermis L., Lythraceae | Henna | Alhana | L | Le | M: paste used to color hair or decorate skin | + |
| Lepidium sativum L., Brassicaceae | Garden cress | Hab rchad | L | Se | M: to “warm the body” and to prevent colds | ++ |
| Linum usitatissimum L., Linaceae | Flax | Zeret kitan | L | Se | F: garnish for sweets and breads | + |
| Malva sylvestris L., Malvaceae | Mallow | Khobiza | L (G) | Le | M: tea for cold and inflammations of the digestive tract | ++ |
| Mentha pulegium L., Lamiaceae | Pennyroyal | Fliou | L | M: tea for sore throats, cold, and fever | +++ | |
| Mentha spicata L., Lamiaceae | Spearmint | Nene | L | Le | M: recreational and digestive tea | +++ |
| Mentha suaveolens Ehrh., Lamiaceae | Apple mint | Marseta | L (G) | F: occasionally gathered from the roadside and consumed on bread; F/M: consumed with honey as a strengthening agent, for improving mental capabilities and against colds |
+ | |
| Myristica fragrans Houtt., Myristicaceae | Nutmeg | Gouza | L | Se | F: spice for sweets | + |
| Nigella sativa L., Ranunculaceae | Nigella sativa | Al habba assawda | L | Se | F: garnish for sweets and breads; M: remedy for colds, cough, promoting lactation, and treating bone problems; seeds burned, the smoke released throughout the house, with windows open: considered able to counteract negative energies |
++ |
| Olea europaea L., Oleaceae | Olive | Zeytun | L | Le, Fr- > Oil | F/M: oil considered good for general health; M: leaves in tea for treating high blood pressure |
++ |
| Origanum majorana L., Lamiaceae | Marjoram | Mardadouch | L | Le | F/M: seasoning and digestive agent M: recreational tea |
+ |
| Origanum syriacum L. and O. vulgare L. Lamiaceae | Bible hyssop and Oregano | Zaatar | L and I | Leaves | F: herb for some savory dishes F/M: also considered useful in food as a digestive aid (carminative), for reliving menstrual pains, as an anti-fever agent, against stomach-aches, as an anti-diarrheal agent, and for losing weight |
+++ |
| Papaver somniferum L. Papaveraceae | Poppy | Budhur alkhashkhash | L | Se | F: garnish for sweets and breads | + |
| Phoenix dactylifera L., Arecaceae | Date | Tmar | L and I | Fr | F/M: consumed for providing strength and energy (“Muslims should eat 3, 5 or 7 dates every day, like the Prophet Mohammad”) | +++ |
| Pimpinella anisum L., Apiaceae | Anise | Nafaa, Yassun, Habat hlewa | L | Fr | F: garnish for sweets and breads; M: tea considered good as a digestive and for losing weight (sometimes fruits ground with coffee) |
+ |
| Piper nigrum L., Piperaceae | Black pepper | Al folfol al aryad | L | Fr | F: belbula (dish made with wheat, milk, and pepper) F/M: seasoning as a digestive aid |
+++ |
| Pistacia lentiscus L., Anacardiaceae | Mastic | Maska al hurra | I | Re | F/M: as a natural chewing gum, for treating toothaches | ++ |
| Punica granatum L., Lythraceae | Pomegranate | Raman | L | Fr | F/M: consumed for general health (as one of the foods mentioned in the Quran it is thus believed curative) | + |
| Rosa spp., Rosaceae | Rose | Waradi | L | Fl | F: flavoring for sweets; F/M: considered an aphrodisiac |
+ |
| Rosmarinus officinalis L., Lamiaceae | Rosemary | Iklil al jabal, Azir | L | Le | M: tea for relieving sore throats and good for the general health | ++ |
| Salvadora persica L., Salvadoraceae | Tooothbrush tree | Miswak | L and I | Wo | M: oral hygiene, externally applied; in teas, for treating stomach problems and during menstruation | +++ |
| Salvia officinalis L., Lamiaceae | Sage | Salmiya | L | Le | M: tea for relieving sore throats and heart problems; with lemon for treating stomach-aches | ++ |
| Sesamum indicum L., Pedaliaceae | Sesame | Assimssim, zanjlan | L | Se | F: garnish for sweets, breads, and savory dishes F/M: strengthening food |
++ |
| Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. and L.M.Perry, Myrtaceae | Cloves | Al koronfol | L | Fb | F: cooking spice for savory and sweet dishes | + |
| Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae | Thyme | Zaetar | L | Le | M: tea for treating stomach diseases | + |
| Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Fabaceae | Fenugreek | Al halba | L | Se | F: cooking spice for savory dishes (esp. cous cous, lentils, breads); M: tea as a digestive aid, an anti-fever agent, an appetite stimulant, and for promoting lactation; seeds, powdered and made into a paste with water, applied directly to skin for treating blemishes | ++ |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae | Ginger | Skinjbir | L | Ro | F: used in many savory dishes; F/M: in food it is considered able to treat colds and to have anti-inflammatory properties; M: used externally in massage oils; in tea with lemon for the prevention of colds and as an anti-fever agent | +++ |
Ap aerial parts, Ba bark, Bu bulbs, Fb flower buds, Fl flowers, Fr fruits, Le leaves, Re resin, Ro roots, Se seeds, Sg stigma, St stems, Tu tubers, Wo wood, Wp whole plant
+, mentioned by less than 10% of the study participants; ++, mentioned by 10–39% of the study participants; +++, mentioned by at least 40% of the study participants