Table 1.

Descriptive information from selected studies

Study	Research design	Participants	Technology	Intervention category and aims	Dependent Variables	Outcomes	Quality
Barretto et al. (2006)	Single subject research; multi element design	Interventionists: two females, one teacher and one psychologist No ages reported Participants with ASD: one male Age: 5 years Diagnosis: ASD tool not reported	Iowa Communications Network (ICN) Camera that transmitted and recorded audio and visual information. Touch to speak Microphones Desktop with PowerPoint	Functional analysis Brief functional Analysis conducted via video conferencing. 5 min sessions. Free play, escape and alone. Interventionists received continuous live video conferenced coaching throughout	Interventionist variables: none reported ASD participant variables: child disruptive behaviour; screaming, noncompliance and property destruction	Positive Successful functional analysis identified escape function for behaviour	Weak
Barkaia et al. (2017)	Single subject research; multiple baseline design	Interventionists: three female therapists. Age: 24–32 (M = 27 years) Participants with ASD: three males Age: 4–6 years (M = 5 years 4 months) Diagnosis: ASD no diagnostic tool provided	Laptops and webcams used from centre Skype Viber/Mobile phone used for calls. videos sent to secured dropbox	Naturalistic teaching Didactic training: spoken and written instructions describing mand and echoic operants, practice exercise to discriminate. 1–2 h Coaching: video conferenced coached sessions focused on mand training and echoics, teaching contingencies of positive consequences, feedback and prompting opportunities. 10 min at end of coaching session recorded for analysis	Interventionist variables: fidelity/correct implementation of sequence and feedback Social validity questionnaire ASD participant: mands and echoic responses	Mixed All therapists increased correct commands from baseline Small increase in feedback for two participants larger increase for one Levels of fidelity were low < 60% Mixed increases in mands and echoics	Weak
Bearss et al. (2017)	Group research design; quasi experimental pre-post test with no comparison group	Interventionists: 13 parents Gender not specified Ages: mothers (M = 38.3), fathers (M = 39.8) Not clear which parent took part in trial Participants with ASD: 13, 9 males, 5 females Age: (M = 5.8 years) Diagnosis: ASD Diagnostic tool: ADOS	Equipment: Computers, scanners, projectors, cameras. No detailed specifics reported Videoconferencing Software: not reported	Behaviour support 6-month direct instruction parent training program designed to teach parents behaviour management strategies, conducted via videoconferencing. Trainers followed manualised training techniques including scripts and videos	Interventionist variables: treatment fidelity checklist Coaches ratings of success Parent treatment engagement scale Telehealth caregiver satisfaction survey Telehealth provider satisfaction survey Home Situations Questionnaire‑ASD Parent Satisfaction Questionnaire ASD participant variable Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Checklists Abhorrent behaviour checklist	Mixed High parent acceptability Trainers scored high levels of fidelity training via telehealth No significant differences in score of Vineland Significant improvements on the Social Withdrawal, Stereotypies Hyperactivity, and Inappropriate Speech subscales of the Abhorrent behaviour checklist	Weak
Benson et al. (2017)	Single subject research design; multi element/followed by an ABAB reversal design	Interventionists Families of ASD participant no information provided Participants with ASD: one male Age: 5 years Diagnosis: ASD diagnostic tool not reported	Dell™ Desktop computer external Logitech camera and Hangouts™ communications platform for video conferencing Debut video Captures software to record sessions	Functional Analysis and functional communication training Home based assessment and Intervention completed by parents with video conferenced coached training. Participants were live coached through the functional analysis This was followed by FCT Baseline consisted of participant being given access to maintaining reinforcement (tangible) after exhibiting SIB. The child was then prompted to use picture card as FCT to receive the item. Parents were live coached throughout	Interventionist variables Fidelity of parent procedures against task analysis of the assessment and training phases ASD participant variables SIB behaviour, face slapping Mands by touching or handing over communication card	Positive SIB decreased after intervention introduced and remerged upon return to baseline and mands increased and decreased on return to baseline	Weak
Gibson et al. (2010)	Single subject research design; ABAB reversal design	Interventionists two females, one pre-school teacher, one teaching assistant Ages not provided Participants with ASD one male Age: 4 years Diagnosis: ASD diagnostic tool not reported	Lap top with digital camera with inbuilt microphone. Skype Dell Latitude D820 notebook computer with a Microsoft Windows XP Logitech Quickcam	Functional communication training Witten direct instructions emailed, including a task analysis of intervention. Video consultation took place just before and after provided descriptive feedback Child taught to raise hand to access escape and toys during circle time	Interventionist variables: None reported ASD participant variables Elopement of ASD participant from assigned work area	Positive ABAB design showed clear return to baseline and improvement in treatment condition	Weak
Heitzman-Powell et al. (2014)	Group research design; quasi experimental design with pre-post test, no comparison group	Interventionists seven parents from four families, genders not provided Ages: 32–47 years. (M = 37.3 years) Participants with ASD: no details provided, referred as ‘children with autism’ in the abstract only	Online training delivered through an online learning management system Polycom® videoconferencing software	Comprehensive Training package on principles of ABA delivered through an online learning platform OASIS. Pre and post training knowledge assessments completed Video-conferenced coaching sessions with discussion of the topic and live coached sessions with participants own child	Interventionist variables Parent skill Assessment (Fidelity) completed before and after training. Scored from videotaped session Parent Knowledge Test Parent Satisfaction with the training ASD participant variables: none	Undetermined Parental gains on knowledge and fidelity were reported and appeared high, no statistical measures of this change were reported	Weak
Higgins et al. (2017)	Single subject research design; multiple baseline design	Interventionists: three female direct-care staff. All worked in EIBI for less than 6 months no experience with preference assessments Age: 21–24 years (M = 22.66 years) Participants with ASD: two males and one female Age: 4–5 years (M = 4 years) Diagnosis: ASD diagnostic tool not reported No pre-intervention assessment information provided	Adobe Connect 8 videoconferencing software Secure file encrypted file transferring software Laptop computer and Logitech Webcam Software v2.2	Preference assessments Participants taught to administer preference assessments via video conferencing Participants given access to written instructions prior to video conferencing Baseline taken on implementation of these instructions. First baseline was conducted using ASD participant, all subsequent training involved using a confederate actor. Training composed of multi-media presentation. Feedback on previous performance and on role play practice sessions. Followed by an assessment and two post training assessments, one with ASD participant	Interventionist participants: percentage of mastered components Social validity questionnaire ASD participant variables: none	Positive Increased fidelity for all participants in the implementation of skills, however only three data points were completed with Participants with ASD	Weak
Ingersoll and Berger (2015)	Group research design; randomly assigned comparison group	Interventionists: 27 parents, 96% female Age: not reported Participants with ASD: 27 participants 70% male Age: 23–73 months. (M = 3.7 years) Diagnosis: ASD diagnostic tools: ADOS, DSM-IV-TR Telehealth group n = 14 Comparison group n = 13 Pre intervention assessment: information on verbal mental age, non-verbal mental age and via Mullen scale of Early Learning	Home computers and webcams ImPACT online training website as per Ingersoll et al. (2016) Skype	Naturalistic teaching ImPACT online training designed to increase social communication Group 1: provided with access to website for 6 months Website consisted of 11 × 75 min lessons, video library, exercises and additional resources Group 2: in addition to the website participants were provided with 2 x weekly 30 min video conferencing session with trained coach One session introduced the topic the second provided live feedback 10-min recording of parent/child interaction during play or snack scored at baseline, post treatment and at 3 months follow up	Interventionist variables: depressive symptoms of parents Intervention knowledge Intervention fidelity Program engagement Program evaluation ASD participant variables: None	Positive Parent assist group more likely to engage with the website Parent engagement high for both groups Both groups significantly increased their intervention knowledge and fidelity, the video coached groups had significantly higher scores of fidelity post treatment	Weak
Ingersoll et al. (2016)	Group research design; randomly assigned comparison group Quasi experimental pre-post analysis for within group analysis	Interventionist participants: 27 parents Therapist Assisted Group (n = 14) Self-Directed group (n = 13) Gender and age not provided Participants with ASD: therapist assisted group (n = 14) 21% female and 79% male Age: (M = 41.57 months) Self-Directed group (n = 13) 13. 39% female and 61% male Age: (M = 46.08 months) Diagnosis: ASD or PDD-NOS Diagnostic tool: DSM-IV and ADOS Pre-assessment scores on the Mullen Scale of Early learning	ImPACT online training website with 12 self-directed lessons Video conferencing software not specified	Naturalistic teaching ImPACT online training designed to increase social communication. Comparison of two groups, one utilising video conferencing on top on online training Group 1: provided with access to website for 6 months Website consisted of 11 × 75 min lessons, video library, exercises and additional resources Group 2: in addition to the website participants were provided with 2 x weekly 30 min video conferencing session with trained coach	Interventionist variables: parent intervention fidelity Family Impact questionnaire (social validity) ASD participant variables: rate of use of individualised language targets, prompted and independent use of language scored MacArthur Bates Communication Development Inventory (Parent scored) Vineland Adaptive Behaviour scales (parent scored)	Positive Significant pre vs post-test increase in parent use of intervention scores of fidelity for both groups Therapist assisted group scored significantly higher at post intervention fidelity but this did not hold for 3 month follow up Increase in parental scores of self-efficacy and decrease in parental stress Significant language increases in child language use over time for language targets Small significant effect for group, therapist assisted group scored slightly better MCDI and vineland score significantly increased	Weak
Kuravackel et al. (2018)	Group research design; randomised control trial	Interventionist: 33 parents No gender or age reported Participants with ASD 33 participants, seven males and 26 females Face to face comparison group (n = 13) Age: 50–148 months (M = 104.62 months) Wait list comparison group (n = 10) Age: 39–153 months (M = 101.8 months) Telehealth group (n = 10) Age: 43–122 months (M = 82.3 months) Diagnostic tool: Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ), DSM-IV and ADOS	No information provided	Positive behaviour support/behaviour management Randomisation to face-to-face, telehealth or waitlist control. Parents provided with knowledge of ASD, and evidence based practices. Delivered via telehealth video conferencing in either a group or individualised format. A manualised copy of training procedures also provided	Interventionist variables: parental stress index Being a parent scale Consultation satisfaction questionnaire Group session rating scale Parent fidelity rating form ASD participant variables: EYEBERG child behaviour inventory Modified checklist for autism in toddlers Social Communication questionnaire	Mixed Significant difference in child problem behaviour scores No effects on parent outcomes	Weak
Lindgren et al. (2015)	Group research design; quasi-experimental design with comparison groups, no random assignment	Interventionist; 50 parent’s genders not provided Age: 23–51 years old Participants with ASD: Group 1 did not meet inclusion criteria for ASD diagnosis as outcomes were not reported separately Group 2: 20 participants, 19 males and one female Age: 29–80 months (M = 50.3 months) Group 3: 30 participants Age: 21–84 months (M = 50.3) Diagnosis: ASD, diagnostic tool not reported	Telehealth workstations equipped with Windows based PC, video monitor and headset Skype	Functional Analysis and Functional communication training Group 2 parents were coached via telehealth to conduct FAs and complete FCT interventions in clinic setting Group 3 conducted in home setting	Interventionist variables: acceptability ratings of the intervention ASD participant variables: % reduction in problem behaviour % increase in mands % increase in task completion	Positive Positive outcomes reported for reduction and increases in all DVs using within group analysis, however no statistical pre-post analysis completed No significant differences between home and centre based groups found after ANOVA	Weak
Machalicek et al. (2009a)	No experimental design	Interventionist: three graduate students in special education No age or gender provided Participants with ASD: three male participants Age: 34 months to 7 years (M = 4 years 11 months) Diagnosis: two ASD and one PDD-NOS diagnostic tool not reported	MacBookTM laptop iSightTM cameras iMacTM desktop iChatTM videoconferencing software JabraTM bluetoothwireless headset	Preference Assessment Trainee teachers taught paired choice preference assessments via video conferencing Participants provided with task analysis Trials were run through video conferencing with feedback and descriptive error correction	Interventionist variables: fidelity of procedures Social validity of the task ASD participant variables: frequency of items chosen	Undetermined No graphed data in report, teachers were reported to reach 100% fidelity within training period	Weak
Machalicek et al. (2010)	Single subject research design; multiple baseline design with additional embedded multi element components	Interventionists: six teachers all female Age: 22–32 (M = 27 years) Participants with ASD: six participants No genders provided Age: 4–10 years (M = 6 years) Diagnosis 5 ASD, 1 with autistic like behaviours Diagnostic tools not reported	MacBook laptop with additional speakers and microphone iSight camera iMac desktop used to film assessments iChat software used in video conferencing	Functional analysis During baseline participants were filmed completing an FA for each condition several times During video conference training participants were given performance feedback in real time and were error corrected by the supervisor	Interventionist Variables: teacher fidelity against a task analysis for each condition Supervisor/coach behaviour was assessed for fidelity against a pre-determined task list ASD participant variables: None	Positive All teachers demonstrated a large increase in the fidelity of treatment and reached fidelity criterion	Weak
Machalicek et al. (2016)	Single subject research design; multi-element/alternating treatments	Interventionists three parents, one male and two females. Ages not reported Participants with ASD: three participants Age: 8–16 years (M = 11 years) Diagnosis: ASD Diagnostic tool: DSM-V Pre-assessment info reported Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS)	2.4 Ghz/250 GB hard drive/SuperDrive MacBook™ Logitech QuickCam Pro 9000™ SuperDrive MacBook™ laptop computer with a built-in iSight™ web camera iChat™ videoconferencing software eCamm™ call recording software	Functional Analysis, FCT and Behaviour support strategies Phase one: initial teleconferenced Parents conducted an FA with telehealth support, prompting, error-correction and praise Phase two: treatment comparison parents were training in individualised support plans involving: antecedent strategies, FCT and DRA procedures Video modelling via telehealth was used to demonstrate each procedure	Interventionist variables: parental fidelity of FA procedures taken on 39%, 35% and 35% of FA sessions Parental procedural fidelity for 89%, 100% and 100% of FCT conditions Social Validity questionnaire ASD participant variables: occurrences of individualised target behaviour that challenges	Mixed Functional analysis indicted function for each participant, although un-labelled graphs make hard to determine Challenging behaviour was low for all conditions but there was no clear differentiation between conditions as the intervention was implemented	Weak
Machalicek et al. (2009b)	Single subject research design; multi element/alternating treatments	Interventionists: two graduate students No ages or gender provided Participants with ASD: two female participants Age: 11 and 7 years Diagnosis: ASD Diagnostic tool: childhood rating scale	2.0 Ghz Mac-Book™ laptop computers with Mac OS X operating system, 2 external iSight™ cameras, iChat™ videoconferencing software One laptop computer with iSight™ camera	Functional analysis Students were trained to conduct functional analysis via live video conferenced coaching	Interventionist variables: none ASD participant variable: individualised targeted behaviour that challenges	Positive Demonstrated clear function of behaviour for both participants	Weak
Meadan et al. (2016)	Single subject research design; multiple baseline design	Interventionists: three female parents Ages not provided Participants with ASD: three participants, two males and one female Age: 2–4 (M = 3) Diagnosis: ASD Diagnostic tool: preschool language score and Ages and Stages Questionnaire—social emotional	iPads provided to families used for video recording Skype Electronic materials shared via a secure online file sharing Box. Camtasia software to record sessions	Naturalistic teaching Internet-Based Parent-Implemented Communication Strategies (i-PiCS) First phase consisted of training delivered with a coach via skype lasting 45 min Second phase was direct coaching through the intervention which involved a 5-7-minute teaching session with the ASD participant Coaching took place two times per week and an annotated video feedback was provided every 4th coaching session	Interventionist variables: quality and rate with which the parent’s implemented the naturalistic teaching strategy (Fidelity) ASD participant variables: children’s social communication initiations and responses Additional fidelity testing on the coaching and training procedures to ascertain the fidelity of the coaching	Mixed Therapists demonstrated an increase in fidelity of implementation-on of strategies With very clear relationships demonstrated in 2 out of 3 days Children’s initiations increased over the intervention as did the percentage of successful communicate-on interactions for 2 out of 3 participants	Weak
Neely et al. (2016)	Single subject research design; multiple baseline design	Interventionists: three females currently working at University ABA clinic Age: 20–22 (M = 21 years, 4 months) Participants with ASD: three participants, two females and one male Diagnosis: two with ASD diagnosis 1 with PDD-NOS Diagnostic Tools: Participant A scores on ADOS, ASRS and Preschool Language Sale Student B only ASRS reported. Student C had no reported pre-intervention language outcomes	ipad mini used to record sessions Videos subsequently downloaded onto external hard-drive Vsee software used to conduct video conferenced using laptop 2.5-GHz ToshibaTM computer 2.4-GHz MacBookTM All interventionists used personal MacBooks Videoconferencing software, HIPPA-compliant	Naturalistic/incidental teaching Pre-intervention training; online module, self-evaluation and delayed feedback video modelling 5-min baseline videos of therapist working on target mand Followed by second video which was evaluated for fidelity independently by therapist and trainer and subsequently discussed through videoconferencing. Additional maintenance probes were carried out 2 and 4 months after fidelity reached	Interventionist variables: frequency of communication opportunities Percentage of incidental teaching steps performed correctly Scores on social validity Total duration of training ASD participant variable: child mands	Positive All therapists increased correct implementation of incidental teaching and reached fidelity All Participants with ASD increased manding	Adequate
Simacek et al. (2017)	Single subject research design; multi element alongside a multiple probe multiple baseline and ABAB reversal for first baseline	Interventionist Participants: parents of the ASD individuals no details were provided Participants with ASD: two females participants Age: 3.5 and 4 years Diagnosis: ASD Diagnostic tool not reported Functional assessment and structured descriptive assessment completed prior to intervention Scores of VABS, Vineland parent interview reported alongside previous and current services including EIBI for one participant	Dell OptiPlex 3010 Desktop with Dell 24in monitor, Logitech HD Pro Webcam C920, Logitech ClearChat Comfort/USB Headset H390 Google Hangout for video conferencing Debut screen recording software Parents used personal computer alongside as provided HD Pro Webcam C920	Functional analysis and functional communication training Coaches conducted a pre-intervention telephone call to carry out a functional assessment interview. Followed by a structured descriptive assessment to mimic the occurrences of targeted behaviours in the natural environment, no coaching occurred. Participants were instructed remotely on how to conduct the FA, with feedback being provided at the start of each session, throughout the session and via email FCT: baseline conducted where idiosyncratic behaviours were reinforced. Training was provided in the use of FCT using direct feedback and written instructions via email	Interventionist variables: fidelity to study procedures was measured for 20% of all outcomes using a task analysis of correct procedures Parent ratings of treatment acceptability ASD participant variables: individualised idiosyncratic behaviour (inappropriate ways to acquire reinforcement) Individualised AAC	Positive Functions of behaviour identified through FA. Both participant’s Idiosyncratic responses reduced to 0	Weak
Suess et al. (2014)	Single subject research design; multi-element and ABAB reversal designs	Interventionist: three parents gender not provided Age: (M = 37 years). No pre-intervention ABA experience provided Participants with ASD: three males Age: 29–39 months (M = 34 months) Diagnosis: PDD-NOS, diagnostic tool not reported. No pre-intervention assessment information provided	Laptop and Skype used for Video Conferencing, Debut videoconferencing software Electronic copy of training manual	Functional Assessment and Functional communication training Parents provided with two didactic training sessions via video conferencing. Covering FA, FCT and behaviour principles Parents subsequently coached via telehealth to conduct FA and FCT	Interventionist variables: fidelity to FCT task with adherence with personalised task analysis for sessions Type of error recorded Social validity questionnaire ASD participant variables: individualised challenging behaviour	Mixed FA successfully completed and identified a function for every participant Fidelity of FCT increased slightly for each participant and behaviour that challenges decreased, no functional relationship between coached and un-coached sessions and no baseline completed	Weak
Suess et al. (2016)	Single subject research design; multi element design with multiple baseline	Interventionists: parents of ASD individuals. No information provided Participants with ASD: five participants Three males and two females Age: 2.5–7.1 years (M = 5) Diagnosis: ASD, diagnostic tool not reported Pre-intervention descriptive functional assessment reported	AS per Wacker et al. (2013a) Skype	Functional analysis and Functional communication training Parents were trained via video conferencing to conduct FAs and subsequent FCT Initial 1 h meeting was conducted to discuss purpose and explain descriptive assessment FA was subsequently performed with ongoing instruction from the coach 3 × 15 min coached FCT sessions subsequently took place as per Wacker et al. (2013a)	Interventionist variables: none ASD participant variables: individually targeted behaviour that challenges Task completion mands	Positive Problem behaviour reduced for all participants Increased mands and task completion Statistical testing of effect size concluded that changed were significant	Weak
Vismara et al. (2013)	Single subject research design; multiple baseline design	Interventionists: eight parents of children involved, seven females and one male No ages reported Education, salary, employment status and marital status reported Participants with ASD: eight participants, no genders provided Age: 18–45 months (M = 27) Diagnosis: ASD Diagnostic tools, DSM-IV, ADOS used as a cut off for inclusion but not reported. Additional services received reported	Early Start Denver Model online training program Laptop for video calls, specific software details not provided	Naturalistic treatment program Video conferencing and use of a self- guided website on parent training in Early Start Denver Model (ESDM) Baseline was 10 min filming parent child interaction Weekly parent training sessions alongside video conferencing parent coaching sessions lasting 1.5 h	Interventionist variables: parent satisfaction, intervention skills, parent engagement styles maternal behaviour rating scale Parent website usage ASD individual outcomes: functional verbal utterances nonverbal joint attention Imitative play actions on objects and gestures	Mixed Parent engagement scores and fidelity scores increased from baseline for all participants ASD participant scores of verbal utterances and joint attention increased for some put not all of participants (multiple baseline not graphed)	Weak
Vismara et al. (2012)	Single subject research design; multiple baseline design	Interventionists: nine parents of children, seven females and two male No ages provided No pre-intervention experience reported Participants with ASD: nine participants, no genders provided Age: 16-38 months (M = 28.89) Diagnosis: six with ASD and three with PDD-NOS Diagnostic tools: ADOS Pre-assessment information provided including Mullen Scales of Early Learning and Vineland Adaptive Behaviour scales	Inter-based video conferencing software Computer, Laptops and webcams Training DVD in ESDM	Naturalistic treatment program Video conferenced coaching of ESDM 10-min video probes were completed at the start of each session, consisting of naturally occurring situations and evaluated skills using ESDM checklist Target behaviours were selected from these results Training DVD was provided 12 weekly video conferencing sessions teaching ESDM conducted	Interventionist variables: fidelity of implementation using the ESDM fidelity scale Maternal Behaviour Rating scale Feasibility and acceptability questionnaire ASD participant variables Child Social Communication Behaviours, prompted verbalisations, spontaneous verbalisations and spontaneous imitation MacArther Bates scores on vocabulary Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Rating scale	Positive Parent fidelity scores significantly improved over time	Weak
Vismara et al. (2016)	Group research design; randomised comparison group	Interventionists 24 parents Group 1: three males and 11 female Group 2: two male and eight females Ages not reported Participants with ASD: 24 participants Age: (M = 31.9 months) Diagnosis: ASD Diagnostic tool: ADOS Telehealth group: six males and four females Comparison group: 11 males and three females Additional services reported	Citrix program GoToMeeting® Parents accessed using home computer, webcam or tablet. Access to ESDM training website	Naturalistic treatment program Investigating parent’s use of ESDM Telehealth group Received access to ESDM online training ongoing weekly videoconferencing to coach them through ESDM procedures Comparison group Community treatment as usual group Received monthly videoconferencing not based upon the ESDM but discussing their current treatment, alongside access to the ESDM website Assessments were 5 min free-play time	Interventionist variables: P-ESDM fidelity checklist Parent website duration Parent satisfaction questionnaire ASD participant variables: spontaneous functional verbal utterances, Imitative functional play actions with or without objects Non-verbal joint attention	Mixed for ASD individual’s behaviour only significant behaviour difference between groups was imitation Significantly more parents in the telehealth group met fidelity after coaching	Weak
Vismara et al. (2009)	Group research design; non randomised comparison group	Interventionists: ten professionals recruited from selected centres, occupation, number of years’ experience working with individuals with ASD and previous training provided Age and gender not reposted Participants with ASD: 29 participants Age: 24–51 months. (M = 32) telehealth group and (M = 33) months for live group Diagnosis: ASD Diagnostic tool: ADOS	ESDM training DVD 2 day video conferenced training seminar (technology details not provided)	Naturalistic treatment program Phase 1 Baseline 10-min probe 2-day training conference 2 h training for each professional conducted via telehealth to discuss individual needs. 1-h phone-call follow up Phase 2 Professionals were given a parent training DVD and a 3-h didactic seminar on parent training, alongside a 2 h group supervision and 1 h telephone conference. Participants submitted a 1 h video of parent coaching session, self rated fidelity scores	Interventionist variables: interventionist and parent fidelity of implementation and interventionist satisfaction with the procedures ASD participant variables: frequency of child socio-communicative behaviours Imitative play actions on objects and gestures Observation ratings of child engagement	Positive Teaching via distance learning was as effective as teaching using live interaction No difference in therapist fidelity Attention and social initiation behaviours increased significantly from baseline	Weak
Wacker et al. (2013a)	Single subject research design: multi element with multiple baseline across participants for FCT component	Interventionists 18 parents, 16 females and two males Age: M = 33 years old No formal training in behavioural treatment Participants with ASD: 17 participants, gender not provided Age: 29–80 months Diagnosis: ASD or PDD-NOS diagnostic tool: DSM-IV, ADI and ADOS. Authors state that further diagnostic and demographic information can be found in subsequent publication	Sessions took place in regional telehealth clinics Windows based PC with teleconferencing software and basic webcam and microphone	FA and FCT training Parents attended a regional clinic where they were taught using video-conferencing to complete FA of problem behaviour and subsequent FCT FA procedures described in more detail in Wacker et al. (2013b) below FCT training via video conferencing in 1 h weekly session to coach through FCT procedures Five minute blocks were recorded throughout each session for scoring	Interventionist variables: acceptability of intervention ASD participant variables: % reduction in targeted challenging behaviour	Positive All participants had large reduction in targeted behaviour, six samples only graphed Parents rated the intervention highly	Weak
Wacker et al. (2013b) b Conduction Functional Analyse of Problem behaviour via telehealth	Single subject research design; multi element design	Interventionists: 20 parents of children, 19 females and one male Age: (M = 34 years) Participants with ASD: 20 participants, genders not provided Diagnosis: seven with ASD and 13 with PDD-NOS Diagnostic tools: DSM-IV, ADI and ADOS	Sony PCS-1600 videoconferencing system with PTZ camera Sony G520 video monitor Teleconsultation Dell Windows XP Logitech 600 Webcam Logitech G330 Emblaze-VCON vPoint HD software VideoLAN VLC media player Windows Movie Maker	Functional analysis Videoconferencing used to carry out training and completion of FA across four phases of training Initial training in phase 1 and 2 focused behaviour analytical procedures Parents interviewed about challenging behaviours and completed log and preference assessment Phase 4 Parents conducted an FA with support from the coach	Interventionist variables: Procedural integrity ASD participant variables: individualised target challenging behaviour, identified and operationally defined using pre-assessment interviews and logs	Positive Functions were successfully identified in 90% of cases, with the additional two cases not identifying a function due to low levels of behaviour that challenges	Weak
Wainer and Ingersoll (2015)	Single subject research design: multiple baseline design	Interventionist: five parents, all female Ages not reported Participants with ASD: five participants, gender not provided Age: 29–59 months (M = 42.2) Diagnosis: ASD Diagnostic tool not reported	Online Reciprocal Imitation Training (RIT) website Corresponding PDF manual Families own home computers and webcams Commercially available videoconferencing software, not named	Naturalistic teaching Hybrid approach of an online training program and video conferencing to investigate RIT 10-min baseline, filmed probes where parents interacted with their children in play Self -directed condition parents used online training program in RIT with four lessons, pre and post knowledge test video examples, active learning self-monitoring and homework 3 × 30 min coaching sessions involving 10 min probes a the start of session	Interventionist variables: RIT fidelity Parental engagement Parental knowledge Parental views on treatment acceptability ASD participant variables: child’s spontaneous imitation	Mixed Parental knowledge of RIT methods significantly increased Program fidelity increased from baseline for all participants, not significantly from self-directed to video conferencing Increased imitation for some children but not all, however significant relationship between parent fidelity and child imitation	Weak
Wilczynski et al. (2017)	No experimental design	Interventionists: one female special education teacher Age not provided ASD participant: one male participant Age: 5 years Diagnosis: ASD, diagnostic tool not reported	PC and webcam Autism Training Solutions web based training GoToMeeting video conferencing software	Comprehensive training Completion of online behaviour skills training; autism training solutions covering behaviour analytical principles Followed by video conferenced coaching session, training manual and provided feedback on pre-recorded videos	Interventionists variables: fidelity of implementation of each training component assessed Knowledge of interventions ASD participant behaviour: compliance with tasks completed, initial compliance and completion of task	Mixed Implementation of most training components increased after training Knowledge of key components increased ASD participant variable: small increase in initial compliance but completion of compliance was at ceiling levels pre-intervention	Weak