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. 2019 Feb 13;9:1940. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-36557-z

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Temporal specificity of fast and slow SP occurrence. Peri-event time histograms of fast and slow SPs co-occurring with frontal SOs are depicted for both age groups. Standard errors of the 100-ms bins are included as black vertical lines. Reference distribution obtained after randomization of the data is shown in red. Red asterisks indicate significantly increased SP occurrence contrasted with the reference distribution (cluster-based permutation test, cluster α < 0.05, positive clusters only). Vertical dashed lines mark the SO trough. Average SOs are shown for each age group. (a) Frontal slow SPs in younger adults globally peak at the up- to down-state transition. (b) The frontal slow SP peak at the up- to down-state transition preceding the SO trough observed in younger adults disappears in older adults. (c) In younger adults, fast SPs prominently peak during the SO peak (SO peak at 480 ms, significant positive cluster: 200–700 ms). (d) In older adults, fast SPs are similarly modulated during the SO up-state as observed in younger adults but their occurrence is maximized before the SO has peaked (SO peak at 618 ms, significant positive cluster: 200–400 ms). YA: younger adults; OA: older adults; SO: slow oscillation; SP: spindle.