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Mechanisms of immune system activation by engineered nanomaterials include (1) depot effect; (2) activation of NLRP3 inflammasome; (3) perturbation of dendritic cell membrane; (4) autophagic regulation; (5) delivery of antigens to the draining lymph nodes; (6) Toll-like receptor (TLR)-dependent signal transduction; (7) B cell activation; (8) T cell differentiation; (9) antigen presentation; (10) host DNA release; and (11) release of soluble mediators.
