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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2020 Feb 1.
Published in final edited form as: Psychooncology. 2018 Dec 27;28(2):228–254. doi: 10.1002/pon.4953

Table 1.

Study characteristics and gender findings

Study Caregiver Characteristics Patient Characteristics Gender Findings
• Caregiver Selection
Ref # Authors Year % Female (Sample Size) Caregiver Demographics % Female (Sample Size) Patient Demographics Results Supporting Theories
Study Design
19 Luszczynska et al. 2007 62.4% (224) Mean age (SD):
59.4 (9.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-German sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 37.6% (173) Mean age (SD):
61.9 (8.5)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-German sample
Diagnosis:
27.1% Colorectal,
12.3% Stomach,
10.4% Liver/Gallbladder,
7.5% Lung/Bronchi,
22.6% Other
Stage:
22.5% I, 22.5% II,
27.5% III, 27.5% IV

  • Both male and female caregivers reported providing emotional support before surgery.

  • Male caregivers provided less support than females by 1- and 6- months post-surgery.

  • Both male and female patients reported receiving emotional support before and 1-month post-surgery.

  • Female patients received less support than male patients by 6-months post-surgery.

  • Support provided by male caregivers was associated with support received by female patients.

  • For dyads in which caregivers were females, the relation between support received and support provided was stronger than for dyads where caregivers were males.

 “Doing Gender”; Gender Role Perspective; Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal;
Quantitative
25 Lopez et al. 2012 0% (15)

 Mean age (SD): 60 (13)
Race/Ethnicity:
100% White/Caucasian
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 100% (15) Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
67% Gynecologic,
33% Breast
Stage: Not reported

  • Male caregivers evaluated caregiving tasks, such as housework, cooking, gardening, and shopping, as well as communicating about spouses’ cancer with other family members, as incongruent with masculinity and challenging.

  • Male caregivers reported difficulty expressing emotions and asking for support.

  • Male caregivers reported worrying about finances because they could not work while their spouses were sick.

  • By the 9-months post-diagnosis, male caregivers reported being more prepared for the tasks that were incongruent with their gender role (e.g., ironing, cooking).

 “Doing Gender”; Role Identity Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal;
Qualitative
26 Ussher et al. 2013 64.2% (53) Mean age: 56
Race/Ethnicity:
96% Caucasian,
4% Asian
Relationship to patient:
77% Partner,
8% Parent,
6% Friend,
4% Child,
4% Sibling		 Not reported Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
25% Breast,
14% Brain,
14% Respiratory,
12% Colorectal,
12% Prostate,
23% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported greater negative relationship changes with the patient, self-neglect, social isolation, anxiety, poorer physical health, and yet greater personal strength/growth.

  • Male caregivers reported increased domestic responsibilities, and improved relationship with the patient.

  • Both female and male caregivers reported challenges with gender incongruent tasks: for females: gardening, household maintenance, and driving; for males: housework (e.g., cooking and cleaning).

 Role Identity theory; Role Strain Theory; Transactional Stress Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional; Qualitative
27 Segrin et al. 2010 54.4% (215) Mean age (SD):
52.7 (13.3)
Race/Ethnicity:
68.1% White,
28.1% Latino/a,
Relationship to patient:
71.2% Spouse,
5.1% Sibling,
4.7% Parent, 11.9% Other		 67.4% (215) Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
67.4% breast,
32.6% prostate
Stage:
34% I, 42% II, 18% III

  • Depressive symptoms, positive and negative affect, anxiety, and relationship satisfaction did not vary by the types of caregivers’ familial relationship to the patient.

  • Worse relationship satisfaction related to higher levels of distress, regardless of caregivers’ gender.

  • Female caregivers reported greater depressive symptoms than male caregivers, which was in part explained by their higher stress levels.

 “Doing Gender”; Transactional Stress Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
28 Kim & Carver 2007 51.9% (400) Mean age (SD):
55.7 (10.9)
Race/Ethnicity:
91.5% Caucasian
Relationship to patient:
65% Spouse		 47.9% (Not reported) Mean age (SD):
55.5 (11.0)
Race/Ethnicity:
95% Caucasian
Diagnosis:
25% Prostate,
23% Breast,
13% Colorectal,
30% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers were more involved in tangible and medical care.

  • For only male caregivers, greater avoidant attachment related to less frequent provision of emotional care to the patients.

  • For only female caregivers, greater anxious attachment related to more frequent provision of tangible care to the patients.

  • No gender differences in perceived difficulty with different types of care provision.

 Attachment theory; Gender Role Perspective;
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
29 Oliffe et al. 2015 100% (15) Mean age (SD): 66
Race/Ethnicity:
100% Canadian/European
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 0% (15) Mean age (SD): 72
Race/Ethnicity:
100% Canadian/European
Diagnosis:
100% Prostate
Stage: Not reported

  • Both male patients and their female spouses considered females’ support provision as normative.

  • Female caregivers aimed to provide support that would allow male patients to maintain their gender-normed behaviors (e.g., decision making and control)

  • Both male patients and their female spouses reported that male patients sought and received more emotional support from their female spouses, yet benefited from camaraderie from other male patients.

  • Female caregivers reported providing support congruent with their gender norms (i.e., primarily emotional)

 Gender Role Perspective.
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Qualitative
30 Perz et al. 2011 67.3% (329) Mean age (SD):
54.8 (13.0)
Race/Ethnicity:
81.6% Australian/White European, 4.0% Asian, 14.4% unknown
Relationship to patient:
73.3% Partner,
11.2% Child,
7.5% Parent,
2.9% Sibling,
2.7% Friend,
2.4% Other		 67.3% (369)
 Mean age (SD):
58.8 (13.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
13.9% Breast,
11.5% GI,
7.4% Hematological,
6.0% Prostate,
5.6% Gynecological, 27.6% Other,
27.9% Missing
Stage:
11.4% I-II,
5.1% III-IV,
19.1% Unknown,
18.3% Unstaged

  • Female caregivers were more likely to provide care for colorectal/digestive cancer, whereas male caregivers for breast cancer.

  • Male caregivers were dominantly more likely to be spouses/partners of the patients, whereas female caregivers were spouses/partners, parents, and offspring of the patients.

  • No gender differences in hours of caregiving and in companionship with the patient, receipt of social support, responsibilities for housework or child care.

  • Female caregivers reported significantly higher levels of anxiety, burden of care, and unmet needs.

  • Female caregivers’ greater disruptions in schedules, greater health problems, and higher levels of emotional and spiritual unmet needs were attributable to their greater anxiety.

 Gender Role Perspective; Role Strain Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
31 Kim et al. 2008b 50.6% (168) Mean age (SD):
59.7 (9.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
95.2% White/Caucasian
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 49.4% (168) Mean age (SD):
60.2 (10.2)
Race/Ethnicity:
90.5% Caucasian
Diagnosis:
49.4% Breast,
50.6% Prostate
Stage: Not reported

  • Caregivers’ own psychological distress related to their own mental and physical health, regardless of caregivers’ gender.

  • Female caregivers’ greater distress related to their male patients’ poorer physical health.

  • Male caregivers reported poorer physical health when their female patients had greater distress.

  • Female caregivers whose psychological distress was dissimilar with their male patients reported poorer mental health.

  • Male caregivers whose psychological distress was dissimilar with their female patients reported better physical health.

 Gender Role Perspective;
Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
32 Jenewein 2008 100% (31) Mean age (SD):
55.4 (10.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 0% (31) Mean age (SD):
58.2 (10.1)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss Sample
Diagnosis: 100% Oral
Stage:
54.8% I-II, 45.2% III-IV

  • Female caregivers reported levels of quality of life higher than population norms.

  • Caregivers and patients reported comparable levels of quality of life.

  • For female caregivers (but not male patients), higher perceived marital quality related to better quality of life and lower levels of depression.

  • Greater discrepancy in marital satisfaction rating related to female caregivers’ (not male patients’) greater psychological distress.

 Gender Role Perspective; Emotional Closeness Perspective; Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
33 Dorros 2010 26% (95) Mean age (SD):
51.7 (14.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
87% White,
12% Hispanic
Relationship to patient:
77% Spouse
17% Daughter,
6% Other		 100% (95) Mean age (SD):
54.1 (10.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
85% White,
14% Hispanic
Diagnosis:
100% Breast
Stage:
33% I, 53% II,
14% III

  • For both female patients and their male caregivers, one’s own depression, stress, and physical health were correlated to each other.

  • Female patients’ depression and stress related to their male caregivers’ lower physical health.

  • Relation between female patients’ depression and their male caregivers’ health was stronger when the female patients had greater stress.

 Gender Role Perspective; Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
34 Wadhwa et al. 2013 64.9% (191) Mean age: 57
Race/Ethnicity:
82.2% European
Relationship to patient:
83.8% Spouse, 11% Offspring,
5.2% Other		 46.6% (191) Mean age: 61
Race/Ethnicity:
84.8% European
Diagnosis:
37.1% GI,
17.8% Genitourinary, 17.3% Breast,
16.2% Lung,
11% Gynecologic Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers spent more hours for caregiving and made more changes in their work situations since initiation of their caregiving role.

  • Female caregivers reported poorer mental health and worse emotional well-being.

  • Changes in work situations, spending more days on caregiving, and caring for patients’ with worse emotional well-being negatively related to caregivers’ mental health. Gender effects on these associations were not tested.

 Gender Role Perspective; Lifespan Perspective; Role Strain Theory; Transactional Stress Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
35 Gaugler et al. 2008 72.1% (183) Mean age (SD):
56.1 (10.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
74.3% White
Relationship to patient:
71.6% Spouse		 Not reported Mean age (SD):
62.0 (12.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
44% Lung,
27% Head/Neck,
21% Brain,
18% Gastrointestinal,
15% Breast,
13% Bone/Leukemia, 13% Prostate,
9% Pancreas/Liver,
8% Gynecological,
3% Skin
Stage: Not reported

  • Employed female caregivers had higher education than unemployed male caregivers.

  • Employed female caregivers were younger than unemployed (male and female) caregivers.

  • Male (employed or not) caregivers were more likely to care for patients with gynecological or breast cancer than female (employed or not) caregivers.

  • Female caregivers (regardless of employment status) reported their care recipients had higher instrumental activities of daily living needs and they provided more instrumental support to the patients, compared with unemployed and employed male caregivers.

  • Employed female caregivers reported more exhaustion and fatigue, compared with employed male caregivers.

 Role Identity Theory; Role Strain Theory; “Doing Gender”
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
• Caregiver Outcomes at the Individual Level
36 Kim et al. 2006 55.7%
(429)		 Mean age: 59
Race/Ethnicity:
96% Caucasian
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 Not reported Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
10 common cancers
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported greater caregiving stress.

  • Male caregivers reported higher caregiver esteem, which related to less caregiving stress.

  • The patient’s poorer psychosocial functioning related to higher caregiving stress only for male caregivers.

  • The patient’s poorer physical functioning related to higher caregiving stress for both male and female patients.

 Role Identity Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
37 Hagedoorn 2002 47.1% (68) Mean age (SD):
54 (11)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - Dutch sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Partner		 52.9% (68) Mean age (SD):
53 (11)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - Dutch sample
Diagnosis:
21% Breast,
18% Intestinal,
16% Skin,
9% Larynx,
6% Bone,
Stage: Not reported

  • Male caregivers were more likely to be employed than female caregivers.

  • Female caregivers were more likely to be responsible for housekeeping.

  • Female caregivers reported stronger feelings of personal accomplishment yet greater distress from providing care.

  • No gender differences in caregiver self-efficacy and support provision.

  • For female caregivers, perception they did not support patients enough and they were not efficient related to their greater distress, which was not the case for male caregivers.

 Role Identity Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
38 Kim et al. 2007 61.8% (448) Mean age (SD):
54.8 (12.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
94.2% Caucasian
Relationship to patient:
78.3% Spouse;
21.7% Offspring		 52.8% (448) Mean age (SD):
60.0 (11.5)
Race/Ethnicity:
93.1% Caucasian
Diagnosis:
21.2% Prostate,
21.0% Breast,
14.7% Colorectal,
10.3% Lung,
25.3% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Male caregivers, especially spouses, appraised caregiving more enhancing their self-esteem.

  • Male caregivers reported less caregiving stress than female caregivers.

  • Adult daughters appraised caregiving most stressful.

  • Adult son caregivers appraised caregiving the least stressful.

  • Gender differences in caregiving stress were not significant among spouses.

  • Male caregivers reported lower levels of psychological distress and higher mental functioning than female caregivers.

 Role Strain Theory; Lifespan Perspective; Transactional Stress Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
39 Kim et al. 2008a 100% (98) Mean age (SD):
40.8 (11.7)
Race/Ethnicity:
89% Caucasian
Relationship to patient:
100% Adult daughters		 100% (98) Mean age (SD):
67.1 (12.0)
Race/Ethnicity:
91% Caucasian
Diagnosis:
25% Breast,
15% Colorectal,
13% Ovarian,
28% Other Stage: Not reported

  • Female patients’ higher levels of distress related to their own lower mental and physical health.

  • Adult daughter caregivers’ distress related to their own lower mental health.

  • Female patients’ distress related to their caregiving adult daughters’ poorer physical health, yet adult daughters’ better mental health.

 Lifespan Perspective; Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
40 Ussher & Perz 2010 68% (484) Mean age (SD):
55.1 (13.2)
Race/Ethnicity:
94.4% Caucasian,
4.6% Asian,
0.8% Aboriginal
Relationship to patient:
71.9% Partner,
11.9% Child,
14.2% Other		 Not reported Mean age (SD):
59.2 (11.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
17.3% Breast,
12.9% Colorectal,
10.6% Hematological,
48% Other
Stage: 8.9% Early,
38.3% Advanced

  • Both male and female caregivers reported using self-silencing coping (i.e., inhibiting self-expression) in order to prioritize the patient’s needs.

  • Male caregivers attributed using self-silencing to the masculinity norm that prohibited them from expressing feelings even prior to the patient’s diagnosis.

  • Greater use of self-silencing coping related to greater anxiety for female but not male caregivers.

 “Doing Gender”; Role Identity Theory; Transactional Stress Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Qualitative
41 Fitzel & Pakenham 2010 71.4% (622) Mean age (SD):
59.5 (12.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Australian sample Relationship to patient:
84% Spouse,
12% Family		 34.6% (622) Mean age (SD):
61.4 (9.3)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Australian sample Diagnosis:
100% Colorectal
Stage: 22% I, 26% II, 43% III, 2% IV

  • Male caregivers reported lower levels of positive affect.

  • Use of avoidant coping and substance use were related to poorer psychological adjustment.

  • Gender effects on these associations were not tested.

 Role Identity Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
42 Pikler & Brown 2010 45.5%
(111)		 Mean age (SD):
57.5 (13.2)
Race/Ethnicity*:
76.3% White,
16.3% African American/Black, 7.4% Other
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse
*Across patients and caregiver		 68.8% (189) Mean age (SD):
55.5 (11.9)
Race/Ethnicity:
See Caregiver Characteristics Diagnosis:
Varied-distribution not reported
Stage: Not reported

  • Masculine or undifferentiated gender-role identity related to greater depressive symptoms, compared with feminine or androgynous gender-role identity, regardless of patient vs caregiver.

  • Caregivers reported greater anxiety than patients, regardless of gender/sex or gender-role identity.

  • Gender-role identity and patient vs caregiver role status did not relate to quality of life, regardless of gender.

 Role Identity Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
43 Goldzweig et al. 2009a 61% (231) Mean age (SD):
69.2 (7.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Israeli sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 39% (231) Mean age (SD):
70.7 (6.2)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Israeli sample
Diagnosis:
100% Colorectal Stage: 14% I, 61% II, 23% III

  • Both male patients and caregivers reported higher distress than their wives (regardless of patient vs caregiver).

  • Male caregivers had the highest levels of depression and distress.

  • Male patients and caregivers reported receiving higher levels of spousal support, compared with females.

 Role Identity theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
44 Baider et al. 2003 41.1% (287) Mean age (SD):
60.0 (11.7)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Israeli sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 48.9% (287) Mean age (SD):
59.9 (11.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Israeli sample
Diagnosis:
41% Prostate,
59% Breast
Stage: 100% I-III

  • Male caregivers were more distressed than female caregivers.

  • Male caregivers reported similar levels of distress as patients (both male and female)

  • When patients were male (but not female), one’s distress related to poorer physical functioning in both patients and caregivers.

  • When patients received lower levels of support, both patients and partners reported higher distress, regardless of caregivers’ gender.

 Role Identity Theory; Transactional Stress Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
45 Goldzweig et al. 2009b 0%
(153)		 Mean age (SD):
65.3 (10.3)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Israeli sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 0% (239) Mean age (SD):
67.9 (9.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Israeli sample
Diagnosis:
100% Colorectal Stage:
17.9% 0-I, 60.3% II, 21.8% III

  • Among males, no patient vs caregiver differences in distress, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress symptoms.

  • Male caregivers reported higher levels of depression than male patients.

  • Male caregivers reported less receipt of social support than male patients.

  • Marital status did not relate to distress among caregivers, and did among patients: unmarried male patients reported the highest levels of distress.

 Role Identity Theory; “Doing gender” Theory; Transactional Stress Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
46 Ezer et al. 2011 100% (81) Mean age (SD): 63.2
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-French Canadian sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 0% (81)
 Mean age (SD): 67.7
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-French Canadian sample
Diagnosis: 100% Prostate
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported increasingly similar perceptions of their male patients’ quality of life domains by the first year since diagnosis.

  • Female caregivers were less satisfied with healthcare services than male patients.

  • Female caregivers were more socially active than male patients.

  • Male patients were more distressed about their sexual relationships than female caregivers were.

 Role Identity Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal;
Quantitative
47 Tuinstra et al. 2004 65% (137) Mean age (SD):
59.2 (10.3)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - Dutch sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 35% (137) Mean age (SD):
59.0 (11.3)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Dutch sample
Diagnosis:
100% Colorectal
Stage: Not reported

  • Prior to surgery, female patients reported greater depressive symptoms than female caregivers.

  • Prior to surgery, male caregivers reported greater depressive symptoms than male patients.

  • Depressive symptoms persisted for females (regardless of patient vs caregiver), but not for males, at 3 and 6 months post-surgery.

  • Similarity in depressive symptom levels between patients and caregivers was not found, regardless of caregivers’ gender.

 Role Identity Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal;
Quantitative
48 Spillers et al. 2008 66.8% (635) Mean age (SD):
55.22 (12.88)
Race/Ethnicity:
93.2% Caucasian
Relationship to patient:
66.6% Spouse,
19.1% Adult Child,
14.3% Other		 57.4% (635) Mean age (SD):
59.2 (12.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
92.1% Caucasian
Diagnosis:
25% Breast,
20% Prostate,
13% Colorectal,
11% Lung,
18% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported greater psychological distress and poorer mental health.

  • Current caregiving, lack of family support, greater disrupted schedules due to caregiving, and lower caregiver competence related to greater psychological distress and poorer mental health.

  • Greater caregiver guilt related to psychological distress and poorer mental and physical health

  • Gender differences in these association were not tested.

 Role Strain Theory; Transactional Stress Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
49 Papastavrou et al. 2009 54.6% (130) Mean age (SD):
50.7 (13.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Greek sample
Relationship to patient:
36.9% Spouse,
14.6% Son,
22.3% Daughter,
15.4% Sibling,
10.8% Other		 60% (130) Mean age (SD):
60.1 (15.0)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Greek-Cypriot sample
Diagnosis:
25.4% Breast,
16.9% Colon,
13.1% Gynecological, 10.8% Lung,
25.7% Others
Stage:
8.5% Advanced

  • Female caregivers reported greater caregiving burden (health and financial) than male caregivers.

  • Female caregivers reported greater levels of depression than male caregivers.

  • Older patient age and lower caregiver income related to greater caregivers’ depression.

  • Use of wishful thinking of caregivers related to their greater caregiving burden, whereas use of problem-solving focused coping related to less caregiving burden. Gender effects on this association were not tested.

  • Less use of assertive coping strategy of caregivers related to their greater depressive symptoms. Gender effects on this association were not tested.

 Role Strain Theory; Transactional Stress theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
50 Alptekin et al. 2010 53.3% (126) Mean age (SD):
45.0 (11.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Turkish sample
Relationship to patient:
46.8% Spouse, 36.5% Child, 12.7% Sibling, 4% Other		 66.7% (126) Mean age (SD):
56.4 (11.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Turkish sample
Diagnosis:
29.4% Gastrointestinal, 25.4% Gynecologic, 25.4% Breast,
11.1% Respiratory System,
8.7% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers were primarily housewives who spent most of their time with the patient.

  • About 70% of caregivers live with the patients; 60% shared the caregiving responsibility with someone else. Gender effects on the prevalence were not tested.

  • Female caregivers had lower quality of life than male caregivers in the psychological and social domains but not in the physical health and environment domains of quality of life.

  • Employed (compared to unemployed) caregivers had higher quality of life (psychological domain), regardless of gender.

  • Caregivers’ quality of life was higher when the patient was female than when the patient was male.

 Role Enhancement Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
51 Kang et al. 2013 58.5% (501) Mean age (SD):
53.2 (12.5)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Korean sample
Relationship to patient:
46.5% Spouse		 47.2% (492) Mean age (SD):
64.3 (13.7)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Korean sample
Diagnosis:
18.9 % Lung,
17.9% Gastric,
63% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Among bereaved caregivers, females were more likely than males to report higher appreciation of others and greater reprioritization of their own values and attitudes about life.

  • Receiving bereavement support services related to benefit findings in bereavement experience. Gender differences in this association were not tested.

 Role enhancement theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
52 Kim et al. 2008 50.5% (314) Mean age (SD):
56.5 (10.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
90.8% White
Relationship to patient:
65.5% Spouse		 Not reported Mean age (SD):
Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
25% Breast,
24% Prostate,
11% Colorectal,
11% Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma,
14% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Male caregivers scored higher on external caregiving motives.

  • Female caregivers reported greater levels of benefit finding.

  • For only female caregivers, attachment anxiety was related to lower benefit finding, autonomous motives for caregiving was related to higher benefit finding, benefit finding was related to more severe cancer diagnosis of the patient, and life satisfaction was related to less severe cancer diagnosis.

  • No gender differences were found in other relations among attachment qualities, caregiving motives, and psychological adjustment.

 Attachment Theory; Self-Determination Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
53 Künzler et al. 2014 61% (154) Mean age (SD):
56.8 (14.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 39% (154) Mean age (SD):
57.5 (12.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss Sample
Diagnosis:
18% Hematologic,
17.9% Lung,
8.5% Liver,
15.9%, Colorectal,
10.7% Genitourinary,
22.5% Other
Stage: 100% 0-IV

  • Females, regardless of patient vs caregiver, reported more personal growth than males, over the span of six months of cancer treatment.

  • Female patients reported less personal growth at six months after diagnosis and when treatment was curative.

  • Caregivers reported similar levels of personal growth with their patients.

  • The greater personal growth reported by female caregivers, the less personal growth reported by male patients who were on curative treatment.

  • In couples with male patients, the similarity in personal growth scores between patients and caregivers was stable at 6 and 12 months post-diagnosis.

  • In couples with female patients, the similarity in personal growth scores between patients and caregivers increased from 6 to 12 months post-diagnosis.

 Interdependence Theory; Role Enhancement Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal;
Quantitative
54 Barnoy et al. 2006 54.1% (98) Mean age (SD):
53.8 (13.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Israeli sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Partner		 45.9% (98) Mean age (SD):
53.8 (13.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Israeli sample
Diagnosis:
Mix of Breast, Ovarian, Prostate, Colon, Lung, Liver, Pancreas, Brain
Stage: Not reported

  • No gender differences in caregivers’ coping styles of monitoring (i.e., paying attention to stressors) and blunting (i.e., avoiding stressors).

  • Among caregivers scored low on monitoring, their female patients reported greater psychological distress and lower well-being.

  • Among male caregivers scored high on monitoring, their female patients scored low on monitoring.

  • Dissimilarity in blunting between patients and caregivers related to greater psychological distress of male patients.

  • Similarity in blunting between patients and caregivers related to patients’ better well-being but caregivers’ poorer well-being, regardless of patients’ gender.

  • Female caregivers experienced more psychological distress than male caregivers.

 Transactional Stress Theory; Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
55 Colgrove et al. 2007 54.3% (403) Mean age (SD):
59 (11)
Race/Ethnicity:
95.80% White
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 Not reported Mean age (SD):
Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
26% Prostate,
23% Breast,
15% Colorectal,
32% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported poorer mental health than male caregivers.

  • Female and male caregivers reported similar levels of physical health.

  • Caregiving stress related to poorer mental functioning only among caregivers with a low level of spirituality. Caregiving stress related to poorer physical functioning only among caregivers with a high level of spirituality. The moderating effects of spirituality were found for both sexes.

 Transactional Stress Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
56 Dunn et al. 2012 71.8% (85) Mean age (SD):
62.5 (10.5)
Race/Ethnicity:
80% Caucasian,
10.6% African American,
4.7% Asian,
4.7% Other
Relationship to patient:
100% Primary caregiver		 44.6% (167) Mean age (SD):
60.9 (11.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
71.9% Caucasian,
15.0% African American,
7.2% Asian,
5.9% Other
Diagnosis/Stage:
48.8% Prostate,
38.1% Breast,
13.2 Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Females (regardless of patient or caregiver) reported higher levels of anxiety consistently during the four months after the completion of radiation therapy.

  • Other risk factors for high anxiety were being younger, ethnic minority, having children at home, high trait anxiety and depressive symptoms at the initiation of radiation therapy.

  • Potential synergistic effects of gender with these variables were not tested.

 Role Strain Theory, Transactional Stress Theory, Lifespan Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal;
Quantitative
57 Friðriksdóttir et al. 2011 62% (223) Mean age (SD):
56 (13.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Icelandic sample
Relationship to patient:
64% Spouse,
36% Other		 Not reported Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Icelandic sample
Diagnosis: Not reported
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported greater number of unmet needs than male caregivers.

  • Female caregivers rated their needs more important than male caregivers did.

  • Female caregivers reported greater anxiety than male caregivers.

  • Both anxiety and depression the highest during 1–5 post diagnosis; both having greater number of important needs and having needs being met related to better quality of life; and greater unmet needs related to greater anxiety.

  • Gender or patient vs caregiver differences in these associations were not tested.

 Lifespan theory, Role Strain Theory, Transactional Stress theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
58 Gustavsson-Lilius et al. 2007 55.3% (123) Mean age (SD):
59 (9.1)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Finnish sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 44.7% (123) Mean age (SD):
59 (8.4)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Finnish sample
Diagnosis:
43.1% Beast,
27.6% Prostate,
9.7% Gynecological,
8.9% Gastrointestinal
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported higher levels of depression and anxiety than male caregivers, whereas no gender differences found in patients.

  • Caregivers’ sense of coherence did not change between the time of diagnosis and 14 months post-diagnosis, whereas patients’ increased, regardless of gender.

  • Caregivers emerged to report similar levels of sense of coherence, anxiety, and depression to the levels of their patients’ by 14 months post diagnosis.

  • Gender differences in caregivers’ anxiety and depression at the patients’ diagnosis persisted at 14 months post diagnosis.

 Transactional Stress Theory; Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal;
Quantitative
59 Hagedoorn 2000 59.5% (173) Mean age (SD):
56.4 (9.1)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - Dutch sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Partner		 40.46% (173) Mean age (SD):
56.8 (9.0)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - Dutch sample
Diagnosis:
25.4% Head-Neck,
25.4% Multiple myeloma,
19.2% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Females (regardless of caregiver vs patient) reported greater depressive symptoms than female healthy control.

  • Male caregivers reported comparable levels of depressive symptoms and quality of life with male healthy controls.

  • Male patients reported greater depressive symptoms and poorer quality of life than female patients and female caregivers.

 Transactional Stress Theory; Gender Role Perspective
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
60 Haley 2003 79% (80) Mean age: 70
Race/Ethnicity:
84% Caucasian
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 Not reported Mean age: 70
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - US sample
Diagnosis:
50% Dementia,
50% Cancer
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported higher depression and worse life satisfaction.

  • Other risk factors for depression and poorer life satisfaction included poorer caregivers’ own health, lack of finding benefits from caregiving, greater caregiving stress, and lack of social resources.

  • Moderating effects of gender were not tested.

 Transactional Stress theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
61 Künzler et al. 2011 63% (137) Mean age (SD): 57 (14)*
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse


* Across patients and caregivers		 47% (218) Mean age: See caregiver age
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss Sample
Diagnosis:
19% Breast,
18%, Hematological,
18% Lung,
45% Other
Stage:
18% I, 18% II, 26% III, 38% IV

  • Females (regardless of patient vs caregiver) reported poorer quality of life.

  • Female caregivers reported the worst quality of life.

  • Among married patients, males reported better somatic quality of life.

  • Female caregivers had worse quality of life than male caregivers in terms of health-related mental quality of life, satisfaction with coping as a dyad, anxiety, and intrusive thoughts.

 Transactional Stress theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
62 Langer et al. 2003 50.4% (131) Mean age (SD): 43.1 (9.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
90.6% Caucasian, 4.7% Hispanic, 4.8% Other
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 51.1% (131) Mean age (SD):
42.9 (9.3)
Race/Ethnicity:
94.7% Caucasian, 4.0% Hispanic
Diagnosis:
36.6% CML (Chronic Myeloid Leukemia),
19.1% Acute Leukemia (AL),
44% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Caregivers reported greater anxiety and depression, compared with their patients and healthy controls.

  • Caregiver-patient dyads reported similar levels of marital satisfaction prior to transplant, which became incongruent by 1 year post-transplant.

  • Female caregivers reported greater increases in anxiety and depression, and greater decreases in marital satisfaction in the six months following stem cell transplant.

  • Female gender of caregivers (not patients’ physical or psychosocial characteristics) was the only predictor of caregivers’ poorer marital satisfaction.

 Interdependence theory; Transactional Stress theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal; Quantitative
63 Langer et al. 2010 47.9% (121) Mean age (SD):
43.5 (9.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
90.1% Caucasian, 5% Hispanic,
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 52.1% (121) Mean age (SD):
43.7 (9.0)
Race/Ethnicity:
92.6% Caucasian,
5.8% Hispanic
Diagnosis:
35.5% CML,
18.2% AL,
46.3% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported decreased marital satisfaction from pre-to 5 years post-stem-cell-transplant, whereas patient (regardless of gender) and male caregivers reported stable levels of marital satisfaction.

  • No gender differences in marital satisfaction prior to stem cell transplant.

  • No gender differences in marital dissolution after transplant were reported.

 Interdependence Theory; Transactional Stress theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal; Quantitative
64 Litzelman & Yabroff 2015 46.9% (910) Mean age (SD):
61.5 (9.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
65.5% White non-Hispanic
34.5% Other
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 53.1% (910) Mean age (SD):
60.4 (13.1)
Race/Ethnicity:
64% White non-Hispanic 35% Other
Diagnosis:
21.1% Prostate,
18.8% Breast,
5.3% Colorectal,
10.6% Multiple,
36.0% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Caregivers’ depressed mood predicted patient’s depressed mood 11 months later.

  • The effect of caregivers’ depressed mood on the patients’ depressed mood was stronger for female patients.

  • Caregivers’ better mental and physical functioning predicted decreased depressive mood of their patients 11 months later, regardless of caregivers’ gender.

  • Female cancer patients were more likely to report increased levels of depression over a year follow-up.

 Transactional Stress Theory; Interdependence theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal; Quantitative
65 Nijboer et al. 2000 64% (148) Mean age (SD):
63 (11)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - Dutch sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Partner		 Not reported Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - Dutch sample
Diagnosis:
100% Colorectal
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported greater loss of physical strength than male caregivers at the time of patients’ diagnosis and 6 months later.

  • Female caregivers reported lower self-esteem as a caregiver overtime than male caregivers.

  • Both female and male caregivers reported similar levels of disruption in their daily schedule and financial problems due to caregiving, and lack of family support.

 Transactional Stress Theory
Caregivers only;
Longitudinal; Quantitative
66 Nijboer et al. 2001 64% (148)


 Mean age (SD):
63 (11)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - Dutch sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 Not reported Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported - Dutch sample
Diagnosis:
100% Colorectal
Stage: Not reported

  • Physical functioning declined in female (but not male) caregivers across 6 months.

  • Improvement in mental and social functioning from the time of patients’ diagnosis to 6 months post-diagnosis was comparable between male and female caregivers.

  • Female caregivers reported worse mental functioning than male caregivers.

  • Low income female caregivers reported poorer mental functioning than low income male caregivers.

  • Mental functioning improved in low-income male caregivers (but not female) at 6-months post-diagnosis.

  • For male (but not female) caregivers, caregiver self-esteem related to better mental functioning.

 Transactional Stress theory
Caregivers only;
Longitudinal; Quantitative
67 Song et al. 2014 58.5% (501) Mean age (SD):
53.2 (12.5)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Korean sample
Relationship to patient:
46.5% Spouse
53.5% Other
47.2% (492) Mean age (SD):
64.3 (13.7)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Korean sample
Diagnosis:
18.9 % Lung,
17.9% Gastric,
69.1% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Female bereaved caregivers had lower quality of life and mental health than male counterparts.

  • Younger age was the only other risk factor associated with bereaved caregivers’ impaired quality of life. Gender by age effects were not tested.

  • Bereaved caregivers reported more problems related to self-care, usual activities, and anxiety and depression, compared to the general population. Gender effects were not tested.

 Transactional Stress Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
68 Valeberg et al. 2013 39% (159) Mean age (SD):
56.7 (12.2)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Norwegian sample
Relationship to patient:
89.5% Spouse,
5.6% Friend,
4.3% Offspring,
1% Sibling		 68.6% (159) Mean age (SD):
58.5 (11.1)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Norwegian sample
Diagnosis/Stage:
46.5% Breast,
18.2% Prostate,
15.6% Colorectal,
19.7% Other
Stage:
28.9% 0-II;
81.1% III-IV

  • Female caregivers reported greater anxiety than male caregivers.

  • No gender differences in caregivers’ depressive symptoms and quality of life.

  • Caregivers reported greater depressive symptoms when their patients had sleep disturbances. Gender effects were not tested.

  • Caregivers of younger patients reported poorer mental health than caregivers of older patients. Gender effects were not tested.

 Transactional Stress theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
69 Segrin et al. 2012 94% (70) Mean age (SD):
61.1 (10.9)
Race/Ethnicity:
81% White,
9% Black,
4% Latina/o,
3% Asian
Relationship to patient:
83% Spouse,
10% Friend,
4% Sibling,
3% Son/Daughter		 0% (70) Mean age (SD):
66.7 (9.3)
Race/ethnicity:
84% White,
9% Black,
7% Latino
Diagnosis:
100% Prostate
Stage:
36% I, 19% II,
19% III, 26% IV

  • Patient’s prostate-specific health issues (e.g., urinary, bowl, sexual function) related to their own and their caregiver’s poorer psychological quality of life (anxiety, depression, fatigue, lack of positive affect).

  • Caregivers’ psychological quality of life predicted the patients’ psychological quality of life 8 and 16 weeks later.

  • Caregivers’ psychological quality of life more strongly predicted their patients’ changes in psychological quality of life over time than patients’ psychological quality of life predicted their caregivers’ changes in psychological quality of life over time.

 Transactional Stress Theory; Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
70 Kim et al. 2010 64.7% (896) Mean age (SD):
54.4 (12.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
90.5% White/Caucasian
Relationship to patient:
65.5% Spouse		 Not reported Mean age (SD):
Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
27% Breast,
18% Ovarian,
14% Lung,
11% Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma,
9% Prostate,
6% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • No gender differences in various caregivers’ unmet needs at 2-month and 5-year after the patients’ diagnosis.

  • Female caregivers reported greater psychosocial unmet needs at 2-year post diagnosis.

  • No gender differences in caregivers’ mental and physical health at 2-month, 2-year, and 5-year post diagnosis.

  • Psychosocial unmet needs of caregivers consistently related to poorer mental health across the three cohorts, caregivers’ financial unmet needs related to poorer physical health at 2-month and 2-year post diagnosis, and caregivers’ unmet needs for daily activities (i.e., caregivers’ personal care and balancing caregiving and social roles) related to poorer mental health at 2-month and 2-year post diagnosis.

  • Gender differences in these relations were not tested.

 Lifespan Perspective; Role Strain Theory, Transactional Stress Theory
Caregivers only;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
• Caregiver Outcomes at the Relational Level/Context
71 McLean et al. 2011 39.1% (46) Mean age (SD):
49.3 (11.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Canadian sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 60.9% (46) Mean age (SD):
49.7 (11.5)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Canadian sample
Diagnosis:
26.1% Breast,
17.4% Head & Neck,
15.2 % Blood,
41.3% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Caregivers reported greater marital distress than their patients, regardless of gender.

  • Patients (regardless of gender) and females (regardless of patient vs caregiver) reported greater depressive symptoms.

  • Patients (regardless of gender) and males (regardless of patient vs caregiver) reported greater hopelessness.

  • Female caregivers’ marital distress increased as their male patients’ avoidance increased.

 Attachment theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
72 Kim et al. 2015a 63.1% (369) Mean age (SD):
55.0 (10.3)
Race/Ethnicity:
90% White
Relationship to patient:
73% Spouses,
14% Offspring,
6% Sibling		 Not reported Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported
Diagnosis:
29.5% Breast,
21.7% Prostate,
12.5% Colorectal,
8.4% Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma,
13% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Female caregivers reported greater caregiving stress than male caregivers.

  • Male caregivers had higher external caregiving motives than female caregivers.

  • Autonomous caregiving motives negatively related to all three facets of spirituality three years later only among male caregivers.

  • Peace component of spirituality related to concurrent better mental health, regardless of gender.

  • Meaning component of spirituality related to concurrent better mental health only among male caregivers.

  • Faith component of spirituality related to concurrent poorer physical health only among male caregivers.

 Self-Determination Theory
Caregivers only;
Longitudinal;
Quantitative
73 Segrin et al. 2005 20% (48) Mean age (SD):
50.6 (14.5)
Race/Ethnicity:
86% White,
14% Hispanic
Relationship to patient:
67% Husband,
17% Daughter,
8% Friend,
8% Other		 100% (48) Mean age (SD):
54.4 (10.0)
Race/ethnicity:
80% White,
20% Hispanic
Diagnosis:
100% Breast
Stage: 100% I-III

  • For both female patients and male caregivers, one’s own stress and negative affect related to their own greater depression, while their own positive affect related to their own lower levels of depression.

  • Female patients’ stress related to their male caregivers’ depression, while male caregivers’ stress did not relate to female patients’ depression.

  • Female patients’ negative affect related to their partners’ depression, while male caregivers’ negative affect did not relate to female patients’ depression.

  • Male caregivers’ positive affect related to female patients’ depression, while female patients’ positive affect did not relate to male caregivers’ depression.

 Role Identity theory; Transactional Stress Theory; Emotional Closeness Perspective; Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal;
Quantitative
74 Zwahlen et al. 2010 54% (224) Mean age: 59.5
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss sample
Relationship to patient:
83.8% Spouse, 11% Offsping, 5.2% Other		 42% (224) Mean age: 60
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss sample
Diagnosis:
22.3% Lymphoma,
17.0% skin,
14.3% Intestinal,
62.8% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Females (regardless of patient vs caregiver) reported greater posttraumatic growth than male counterparts.

  • Patients (regardless of gender) reported greater posttraumatic growth than caregivers.

  • More similar levels of posttraumatic growth between patients and caregivers were reported in male patient-female caregiver dyads than female patient-male caregiver dyads.

 Interdependence Theory; Gender Role Perspective; Role Enhancement Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
75 Kim et al. 2015b 77.5% (398) Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
76.9% Caucasian, 14.8% African American,
3.0% Hispanic, 5.3% Other
Relationship to patient:
63.8% Spouse, 14.9% Offspring, 5.3% Sibling, 6.9% Other		 35.4% (398) Mean age: Not reported
Race/Ethnicity:
78.6% Caucasian, 15.1% African American,
2.8% Hispanic,
3.5% Other
Diagnosis:
53.3% Colorectal,
46.6% Lung
Stage:
1% 0, 31.7% I,
19.3% II, 34.4% III, 13.6% IV

  • Male caregivers of female patients reported the lowest levels of depressive symptoms.

  • Female patients’ mental health scores were similar to their caregivers’ mental health, regardless of the caregivers’ gender.

  • Male patients with male caregivers reported lower mental health than male patients with female caregivers.

  • Female patients’ depression symptoms related to their caregivers’ poorer physical health, regardless of caregivers’ gender.

  • Greater differences in depressive symptoms with the dyad related to female patients’ poorer physical health and to caregivers’ (regardless of gender) better physical but poorer mental health.

  • Male patients’ elevated depressive symptoms related to caregivers’ poorer mental health (regardless of the caregivers’ gender).

 Interdependence Theory; Gender Role Perspective
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional (caregivers)/Longitudinal (patients);
Quantitative
76 Moser et al. 2013 61% (154) Mean age (SD):
56.8 (13.3)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss Sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Partner		 39% (154) Mean age (SD):
57.5 (9.2)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss Sample
Diagnosis:
27.7% Hematologic, 27.5% Lung,
24.5% Bowel,
23.4% Breast,
24.4% Other
Stage:
15.1% I, 18.9% II,
27.6% III, 38.6% IV

  • Female caregivers reported greater anxiety and depression than male caregivers and their patients (regardless of gender) up to 3-years post-diagnosis.

  • Females (regardless of patient vs caregiver) reported greater anxiety, depression, and psychological distress, and lower quality of life.

  • Male patients’ distress related to their female caregivers’ distress 6 months later.

  • Changes in anxiety, depression, psychological distress, and quality of life across 3 years did not vary by gender along with patients vs caregiver role.

 Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Longitudinal;
Quantitative
77 McPherson et al. 2008 68% (66) Mean age (SD):
61.0 (13.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
88% Caucasian, 12% Other
Relationship to patient:
Mixed		 43% (66) Mean age (SD):
68.0 (11.6)
Race/Ethnicity:
91% Caucasian,
9% Other
Diagnosis:
28.8% Lung,
24.2% GI,
47.4% Other
Stage: 100% III-IV

  • Caregivers overestimated their patients’ psychological (than physical) symptoms.

  • Male caregivers had greater discrepancy in their rating of their patients’ physical and psychological symptoms than female caregivers.

 Interdependence Theory; Gender Role Perspective
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative
78 Drabe 2013 55% (156) Mean age (SD):
57.9 (21.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss sample
Relationship to patient:
100% Spouse		 45% (149) Mean age (SD):
58.5 (12.8)
Race/Ethnicity:
Not reported-Swiss Sample
Diagnosis:
22.5% Lymphoma,
17.2% Skin,
9.6% Breast,
14.8% Intestinal,
9.6% Lung,
6.2% Leukemia,
6.7% Myeloma,
6.6% Other
Stage: Not reported

  • Males’ (regardless of patient vs caregiver) perception the cancer had negative impact on their relationship related to their lower quality of life, and greater anxiety and depression.

  • Female caregivers’, but not female patients’, perception the cancer had negative impact on their relationship related to their lower quality of life, and greater anxiety and depression.

  • The perception that the cancer had negative impact on their relationship related to their lower quality of life, and greater anxiety and depression, controlling for gender.

  • No gender differences in patients’ perception that the cancer had negative impact on their relationship.

  • Female caregivers were more likely to perceive the cancer having negative impact on their relationship than male caregivers.

 Interdependence Theory
Both caregivers & patients;
Cross-sectional;
Quantitative