Table 1.
Distribution of live births and neonatal deaths across risk factors, by study site
| Bangladesh |
Jharkhand/Odisha, India |
Mumbai, India |
Nepal |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| # deliveries (%) | nnd | # deliveries (%) | nnd | # deliveries (%) | nnd | # deliveries (%) | nnd | ||
| Total per site | 30 115 | 1041 | 8817 | 518 | 7478 | 64 | 3222 | 119 | |
| Time (years) | 1 | 4923 (16.3) | 199 | 2920 (33.1) | 153 | 2643 (35.3) | 22 | 1762 (54.7) | 71 |
| 2 | 5041 (16.7) | 203 | 2972 (33.7) | 177 | 2598 (34.7) | 23 | 1460 (45.3) | 48 | |
| 3 | 5234 (17.4) | 175 | 2925 (33.2) | 188 | 2237 (29.9) | 19 | |||
| 4 | 4773 (15.8) | 156 | |||||||
| 5 | 4204 (14.0) | 133 | |||||||
| 6 | 5940 (19.7) | 175 | |||||||
| Age | <18 | 986 (3.3) | 40 | 214 (2.6) | 25 | 58 (0.8) | 1 | 53 (1.6) | 4 |
| 18–20 | 7591 (25.2) | 306 | 1610 (19.4) | 134 | 1273 (17.1) | 11 | 361 (11.2) | 13 | |
| 21–23 | 5799 (19.3) | 195 | 1660 (20.0) | 90 | 2006 (26.9) | 12 | 733 (22.7) | 23 | |
| 24–26 | 6406 (21.3) | 164 | 1721 (20.8) | 90 | 2005 (26.9) | 15 | 556 (17.3) | 20 | |
| 27–29 | 3556 (11.8) | 117 | 1121 (13.5) | 64 | 1069 (14.3) | 13 | 448 (13.9) | 13 | |
| 30–32 | 3030 (10.1) | 109 | 1081 (13.0) | 52 | 675 (9.0) | 6 | 383 (11.9) | 18 | |
| 33–35 | 1470 (4.9) | 51 | 546 (6.6) | 34 | 241 (3.2) | 4 | 251 (7.8) | 13 | |
| >35 | 1271 (4.2) | 58 | 337 (4.1) | 15 | 138 (1.8) | 2 | 437 (13.6) | 15 | |
| Missing | 6 | 1 | 527 | 14 | 13 | 0 | |||
| Birth interval | Primigravida | 10 090 (36.6) | 372 | 2446 (28.2) | 200 | 2367 (65.5) | 17 | 609 (100.0) | 23 |
| (months) | <15 | 610 (2.2) | 45 | 314 (3.6) | 25 | 87 (2.4) | 1 | ||
| 15–26 | 2699 (9.8) | 89 | 1730 (20.0) | 88 | 372 (10.3) | 4 | |||
| 27–68 | 9731 (35.3) | 279 | 3986 (46.0) | 178 | 644 (17.8) | 6 | |||
| >68 | 4441 (16.1) | 136 | 183 (2.1) | 10 | 144 (4.0) | 0 | |||
| Missing | 2544 | 120 | 158 | 17 | 3864 | 36 | 2613 | 96 | |
| Educationa | No school | 7107 (23.6) | 320 | 5974 (67.8) | 372 | 2094 (28.9) | 26 | 2769 (86.0) | 103 |
| Primary | 10 076 (33.5) | 369 | 448 (5.1) | 26 | 397 (5.5) | 5 | 302 (9.4) | 9 | |
| Secondary | 12 582 (41.9) | 345 | 2317 (26.3) | 118 | 4037 (55.8) | 29 | 146 (4.5) | 6 | |
| BSc/MSc | 297 (1.0) | 5 | 78 (0.9) | 2 | 706 (9.8) | 1 | 3 (0.1) | 1 | |
| Missing | 53 | 2 | 244 | 3 | 2 | 0 | |||
| Illiterate | No | 21 516 (71.5) | 654 | 2709 (30.7) | 141 | 5328 (73.7) | 42 | 710 (22.0) | 25 |
| Yes | 8585 (28.5) | 386 | 6108 (69.3) | 377 | 1906 (26.3) | 19 | 2510 (78.0) | 94 | |
| Missing | 14 | 1 | 244 | 3 | 2 | 0 | |||
| Household wealth | Poorest | 10 046 (33.4) | 413 | 1565 (17.8) | 110 | 1745 (23.3) | 23 | 1792 (55.8) | 73 |
| (tertiles)b | Middle | 10 839 (36.0) | 369 | 3667 (41.6) | 225 | 3534 (47.3) | 27 | 1138 (35.4) | 38 |
| Least poor | 9228 (30.6) | 259 | 3584 (40.7) | 182 | 2199 (29.4) | 14 | 283 (8.8) | 8 | |
| Missing | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 0 | |||
| 1 ANC visit | No | 12 875 (42.8) | 488 | 2541 (28.8) | 169 | 2057 (27.5) | 22 | 2676 (83.3) | 98 |
| Yes | 17 236 (57.2) | 553 | 6273 (71.2) | 349 | 5421 (72.5) | 42 | 535 (16.7) | 21 | |
| Missing | 4 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 11 | 0 | |||
| 4+ ANC visits | No | 25 350 (84.2) | 897 | 6784 (76.9) | 419 | 2483 (33.2) | 33 | 3079 (95.6) | 113 |
| Yes | 4764 (15.8) | 144 | 2033 (23.1) | 99 | 4995 (66.8) | 31 | 141 (4.4) | 6 | |
| Missing | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | |||||
| Tetanus vaccination | No | 11 759 (39.0) | 426 | 1485 (16.8) | 110 | 474 (6.3) | 13 | 215 (21.4) | 8 |
| Yes | 18 354 (61.0) | 615 | 7332 (83.2) | 408 | 7004 (93.7) | 51 | 790 (78.6) | 33 | |
| Missing | 2 | 0 | 2217 | 78 | |||||
| Premature | No | 28 332 (94.7) | 672 | 8290 (94.9) | 382 | 7082 (95.0) | 27 | 3140 (97.5) | 84 |
| Yes | 1600 (5.3) | 362 | 445 (5.1) | 130 | 374 (5.0) | 15 | 82 (2.5) | 35 | |
| Missing | 183 | 7 | 82 | 6 | 22 | 22 | |||
| Pregnancy complications | No | 25 495 (84.7) | 775 | 6860 (77.8) | 372 | 7334 (98.9) | 0 | ||
| Yes | 4588 (15.3) | 265 | 1957 (22.2) | 146 | 80 (1.1) | 0 | |||
| Missing | 32 | 1 | 64 | 64 | 3222 | 119 | |||
| Seasonc | Warm | 7307 (24.3) | 233 | 3106 (35.2) | 157 | 1923 (25.7) | 15 | 1407 (43.7) | 44 |
| Rainy | 12 106 (40.2) | 416 | 2944 (33.4) | 158 | 2380 (31.8) | 20 | 1013 (31.4) | 30 | |
| Cold | 10 702 (35.5) | 392 | 2767 (31.4) | 203 | 3175 (42.5) | 29 | 802 (24.9) | 45 | |
| Delivery location | Home | 23 487 (78.6) | 773 | 7031 (79.9) | 428 | 952 (12.7) | 17 | 3162 (98.1) | 115 |
| Institutional | 6403 (21.4) | 260 | 1769 (20.1) | 90 | 6526 (87.3) | 47 | 60 (1.9) | 4 | |
| Missing | 225 | 8 | 17 | 0 | |||||
| Labour duration >24 h | No | 23 994 (79.7) | 770 | 7511 (85.2) | 405 | 7271 (97.3) | 57 | 2618 (81.3) | 81 |
| Yes | 6106 (20.3) | 270 | 1305 (14.8) | 113 | 202 (2.7) | 2 | 604 (18.7) | 38 | |
| Missing | 15 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 5 | |||
| Delivery complications | No | 27 898 (92.9) | 881 | 7252 (82.3) | 393 | 7359 (98.4) | 59 | 1782 (55.3) | 51 |
| Yes | 2123 (7.1) | 157 | 1558 (17.7) | 125 | 119 (1.6) | 5 | 1439 (44.7) | 68 | |
| Missing | 94 | 3 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |||
| Presentation | Breech | 559 (1.9) | 75 | 96 (1.1) | 29 | 18 (0.6) | 3 | ||
| Normal | 25 955 (86.8) | 868 | 8509 (97.6) | 475 | 54 (4.5) | 54 | 3186 (99.4) | 115 | |
| Caesarean | 3396 (11.4) | 81 | 117 (1.3) | 5 | 1136 (95.5) | 9 | 2 (0.1) | 0 | |
| Missing | 205 | 17 | 95 | 9 | 6288 | 1 | 16 | 1 | |
| Mother died | No | 30 065 (99.8) | 1034 | 8774 (99.5) | 510 | 7475 (100.0) | 63 | 3209 (99.6) | 115 |
| Yes | 50 (0.2) | 7 | 43 (0.5) | 8 | 3 (0.0) | 1 | 13 (0.4) | 4 | |
| Sex of baby | Male | 15 536 (51.6) | 615 | 4469 (50.7) | 302 | 3939 (52.7) | 38 | 1692 (52.5) | 75 |
| Female | 14 579 (48.4) | 426 | 4348 (49.3) | 216 | 3538 (47.3) | 25 | 1530 (47.5) | 44 | |
| Missing | 1 | 1 | |||||||
| Multiple birth | No | 29 551 (98.1) | 884 | 8613 (97.7) | 449 | 7353 (98.3) | 58 | 3162 (98.1) | 110 |
| Yes | 564 (1.9) | 157 | 204 (2.3) | 69 | 125 (1.7) | 6 | 60 (1.9) | 9 | |
| Size at birth | Small | 5400 (17.9) | 394 | 606 (6.9) | 146 | 917 (12.4) | 40 | 121 (3.8) | 38 |
| Normal | 22 119 (73.5) | 509 | 8150 (92.4) | 366 | 4311 (58.1) | 7 | 3042 (94.4) | 74 | |
| Large | 2595 (8.6) | 138 | 61 (0.7) | 6 | 2193 (29.6) | 15 | 59 (1.8) | 7 | |
| Missing | 1 | 0 | 57 | 2 | |||||
| Looking abnormal | No | 21 973 (92.4) | 592 | 8422 (95.6) | 437 | 7432 (99.4) | 53 | 3149 (97.7) | 95 |
| Yes | 1810 (7.6) | 254 | 392 (4.4) | 80 | 46 (0.6) | 11 | 73 (2.3) | 24 | |
| Missing | 6332 | 195 | 3 | 1 | |||||
| Breathed and cried | No | 3977 (13.2) | 402 | 41 (0.5) | 8 | 117 (1.6) | 19 | ||
| immediately | Yes | 26 138 (86.8) | 639 | 8776 (99.5) | 510 | 7359 (98.4) | 43 | ||
| Missing | 2 | 2 | 3222 | 119 | |||||
| Condition | Poor | 1826 (6.1) | 387 | 281 (3.2) | 145 | ||||
| at 5 min | Good | 27 923 (93.9) | 622 | 8441 (96.8) | 351 | ||||
| Missing | 366 | 32 | 95 | 22 | 7478 | 64 | 3222 | 119 | |
| Condition arms and legs | Normal | 23 598 (99.1) | 788 | 8677 (98.4) | 438 | ||||
| Floppy | 174 (0.7) | 47 | 112 (1.3) | 71 | |||||
| Stiff | 39 (0.2) | 10 | 28 (0.3) | 9 | |||||
| Missing | 6304 | 196 | 7478 | 64 | 3222 | 119 | |||
Maternal education: ‘no schooling’ was used as reference category instead of BSc/MSc, because the latter group is extremely small.
Household-wealth indicators included in the Principal Components Analysis were as follows: Bangladesh (electricity, radio/tape recorder, fan, television, telephone, generator, bicycle, fridge), Jharkhand/Odisha (India) (electricity, radio/tape recorder, fan, television, generator, bicycle, fridge), Mumbai (India) (electricity, radio/tape recorder, fan, television, telephone, bicycle, fridge). For Nepal, the wealth measure was based on predefined asset levels in the surveillance questionnaire, based on household ownership of one or more of the items on the list. These items were as follows: least poor (bus, truck, motorcycle, television, motor tractor, fridge, hand tractor, sewing machine/cassette player/fan/radio/camera/bicycle), middle (wall clock/iron), poorest (none of the above).
Season was defined as follows: Bangladesh (rainy: June–October; cold: November–February; warm: March–May), Jharkhand/Odisha (India) (rainy: July–October; cold: November–February; warm: March–June), Mumbai (India) (rainy: June–September; cold: November–March; warm: October, April–May), Nepal (rainy: June–mid-September; cold: mid-November to mid-February; warm: mid-September to mid-November and mid-February to May).