Table 2.
Health Risks Associated with Female Genital Mutilation
| Short-term complications |
| Extreme pain |
| Hemorrhage |
| Shock (hemorrhagic, neurogenic, septic) |
| Infection (wound infection, septicemia, gangrene, tetanus, genital and reproductive tract infections, urinary tract infections, possible association with increased risk of HIV and HCV due to the use of the same surgical instrument without sterilization) |
| Necrotizing fasciitis |
| Acute urine retention, urethral injury |
| Death (secondary to severe bleeding or septicemia) |
| Long-term complications |
| Urogynecological: infections (chronic genital abscesses, recurrent vaginal infections, recurrent urinary tract infections), genital scarring, inclusion cysts, menstrual disorders (dysmenorrhea, irregular periods, and difficult passage of menstrual blood with the risk of hematocolpo), chronic vulvar and pelvic pain, painful urination, infertility (primary, ascending pelvic infections) |
| Obstetrical: increased risk of prolonged labor, postpartum hemorrhage (blood loss ≥500 mL), episiotomy, perineal trauma, caesarean section, instrumental delivery, prolonged hospitalization, stillbirth, and early neonatal deatha |
| Psychological: post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, memory problems |
| Sexual complications: dyspareunia (particularly with type III FGM), decreased sexual satisfaction and lubrication during intercourse, reduced sexual desire and arousal, increased risk of anorgasmia |
a
Obstetrical risks referred to studies performed in low-income countries; studies performed in Western setting suggest that a high standard of obstetric care can minimize these complications.15
FGM, female genital mutilation.