Table 1.
Confirmed effects of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) infection on astrocytes and whole brain.
| TBEV | Confirmed Infection | CPE | Cell Death | Effect on Blood–Brain Barrier | Chemokines/Cytokines | Traffic of Endosomes | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary human astrocytes | + | + | +/− | + | + | N/A | [31] |
| Primary mouse astrocytes | + | + | + (IFNAR knockout) | N/A | + | N/A | [32,56] |
| Primary rat astrocytes | + | − | − | N/A | N/A | + | [19] |
| Glioblastoma cell line | + | + | + | N/A | N/A | N/A | [18] |
| Human brain | + | + | + | N/A | N/A | N/A | [57] |
| Mouse, vole, shrew brain | + | N/A | N/A | + | + | N/A | [39,40,50,52] |
CPE, extensive morphologic changes in the cytoplasm/cytopathogenic effect. Chemokines/cytokines, detected release of chemokines and cytokines from astrocytes. IFNAR, IFNα/β receptor; N/A, not applicable (not reported); +, the effect or upregulation was detected; −, the effect was absent; +/−, both effects observed.