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. 2019 Feb 28;9:3001. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-39034-3

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Caponiidae, male meiosis and sex chromosomes. Symbols: ↑ (sex chromosome multivalent), ▲ (bivalent with two chiasmata). Schemes of sex chromosome pairing: dark blue elements – X chromosomes (both chromosome ends involved into pairing); light blue elements – X chromosomes (one chromosome end involved into pairing only); red elements – Y chromosomes. (a) Nops aff. variabilis, incomplete diplotene, X chromosomes are positively heteropycnotic, associated at both ends with a tiny Y chromosome; (b) Caponia natalensis, metaphase I (73 bivalents and a sex chromosome multivalent, separated from bivalents by dotted line). Each bivalent contains a single chiasma. The sex chromosome cluster is formed by six X chromosomes, which are associated at both ends except for one element (*); (c) C. hastifera, metaphase I (58 bivalents and a sex chromosome multivalent, separated from bivalents by dotted line). Each bivalent contains a single chiasma. The sex chromosome multivalent is intersected by a bivalent (+); (d) C. natalensis, sex chromosomes. From left to right: (1) metaphase I, a sex chromosome cluster composed of six X chromosomes associated at both ends; (2) scheme of sex chromosome pairing; (3) morphology of X chromosomes (metaphase II); (e) C. hastifera, sex chromosomes. First row, from left to right: (1) metaphase I, a sex chromosome cluster formed by 10 X chromosomes and two Y microchromosomes. Both ends of two biarmed X chromosomes (open arrowheads) take part in pairing. In contrast, only one end of the acrocentric X chromosomes is involved in pairing. Tiny Y chromosomes are in the middle of the cluster; (2) scheme of sex chromosome pairing; (3) another metaphase I, centre of multivalent: note the uneven size of the two Y chromosomes. Second row, from left to right: (1) morphology of sex chromosomes (metaphase II); (2) morphology of Y microchromosomes (metaphase II). Note the metacentric Y₁ chromosome. The Y₂ chromosome is probably acrocentric.