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. 2019 Feb 28;9:3001. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-39034-3

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Hypotheses on haplogyne chromosome evolution. Suggested events (numbers in bold): 1 (2n♂~40, X₁X₂Y; ancestral karyotype of haplogynes), 2 (duplication of genome in common ancestor of Caponiidae and Dysderoidea; the latter includes Segestriidae, Oonopidae, Orsolobidae, and Dysderidae), 3 (X₁X₂X₃X₄Y₁Y₂, ancestral sex chromosome system of Nopinae), 4 (duplication of genome in Caponia ancestor), 5 (X₁X₂X₃X₄X₅X₆Y₁Y₂, ancestral sex chromosome system of Caponia), 6 (origin of holokinetic chromosomes), 7 (2n♂ = 7, X0, ancestral karyotype of Dysderoidea), 8 (concerted fission of all chromosomes in ancestor of Segestria), 9 (origin of inverted meiosis of sex chromosome in ancestor of Harpacteinae), 10 (2n♂ = 25, 2n of Harpactea lepida), 11 (2n♂ = 9, ancestral 2n of Dysderinae), 12 (prominent X chromosome, synapomorphy of Dysdera and Dysderocrates). Tree topology is based on Wheeler et al.¹⁹, except for filistatids (resolved according to Gray⁵⁴), nopines (based on Sánchez-Ruiz & Brescovit⁵⁵), and Harpactea (based on cytogenetic data of this study).