Table 2: Characteristics of Other Biomarkers for Heart Failure.

Biomarker	Physiological Actions	Conditions Where it is Increased	Cardiac Actions	Role in Heart Failure Management
Galectin-3[69]	Mediator of tumour growth and metastasis	Increasing age, diabetic nephropathy, fibrotic conditions of liver and lung, chronic pancreatitis	Promotes cardiac fibroblast proliferation, collagen deposition and ventricular dysfunction	Diagnostic capability = no Prognostic capability = yes
Neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin (NGAL)[70]	Produced by neutrophils and endothelial cells as an acute phase protein	Earliest marker of nephrotoxic or ischaemic renal injury	Action on the heart unknown, but levels increase in acute heart failure even in the presence of normal renal function	Diagnostic capability = yes Prognostic capability = yes
mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin (MR-ProADM)[71]	First found in pheochromocytoma cells. They have vasodilatory effects and increase nitric oxide synthesis		Increases myocardial contractility via a cyclic AMP-independent mechanism. Also causes vasodilatation and increases cardiac index	Diagnostic capability = no Prognostic capability = yes