Figure 2.

Potential experimental design to elucidate early-life effects on adult phenotypes, as well as possible trans-generational effects. Life-history and developmental stages are based on placental mammals, and specific timing of events is based on house mice. The maternal environment and/or the juvenile environment can be modified in many ways, including through changes in diet or the providing of access to exercise wheels (Acosta et al. 2015). During the post-natal period from birth to weaning, such factors as litter size or ambient temperature could be manipulated, thus providing other avenues of environmental manipulation that do not derive solely and directly from the mother. Cross-fostering designs also have much to offer, as discussed in the text.