Table 3.
Hazard ratio (95% CI) of type 2 diabetes associated with resting heart rate stratified by known risk factors† in men (1992–2012)
| Resting heart rate (beat per minute) |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <60 | 60–64 | 65–69 | 70–74 | 75–79 | ≥80 | Per 10 bpm | P interaction | ||
| Age | |||||||||
| <60 yrs | 1 (ref) | 1.18 (0.91–1.52) | 1.19 (0.91–1.56) | 1.38 (1.07–1.78) | 1.48 (1.12–1.97) | 1.74 (1.34–2.25) | 1.19 (1.12–1.26) | 0.19 | |
| ≥60 yrs | 1 (ref) | 1.06 (0.86–1.31) | 1.30 (1.04–1.61) | 1.28 (1.03–1.58) | 1.57 (1.24–2.00) | 1.61 (1.29–2.02) | 1.18 (1.12–1.25) | ||
| Body mass index | |||||||||
| <25 kg/m2 | 1 (ref) | 1.34 (0.93–1.93) | 1.52 (1.03–2.25) | 1.70 (1.17–2.47) | 2.40 (1.58–3.64) | 2.63 (1.77–3.90) | 1.34 (1.23–1.46) | <.001 | |
| 25–29.9 kg/m2 | 1 (ref) | 1.05 (0.84–1.30) | 1.28 (1.02–1.60) | 1.29 (1.04–1.60) | 1.44 (1.13–1.85) | 1.68 (1.34–2.11) | 1.18 (1.12–1.25) | ||
| ≥30 kg/m2 | 1 (ref) | 1.02 (0.73–1.43) | 0.95 (0.66–1.36) | 1.05 (0.75–1.48) | 1.27 (0.88–1.83) | 1.23 (0.87–1.73) | 1.09 (1.00–1.18) | ||
| Physical activity | |||||||||
| <25 MET-h/week | 1 (ref) | 1.03 (0.82–1.29) | 1.13 (0.90–1.43) | 1.26 (1.01–1.58) | 1.48 (1.17–1.88) | 1.59 (1.27–1.99) | 1.18 (1.12–1.24) | 0.51 | |
| ≥25 MET-h/week | 1 (ref) | 1.23 (0.97–1.56) | 1.42 (1.10–1.83) | 1.41 (1.10–1.81) | 1.63 (1.21–2.21) | 1.88 (1.44–2.47) | 1.21 (1.13–1.30) | ||
| Diet quality | |||||||||
| <median | 1 (ref) | 1.05 (0.84–1.31) | 1.19 (0.94–1.49) | 1.25 (1.00–1.55) | 1.42 (1.11–1.81) | 1.57 (1.26–1.97) | 1.17 (1.11–1.24) | 0.41 | |
| ≥median | 1 (ref) | 1.21 (0.95–1.53) | 1.35 (1.04–1.74) | 1.45 (1.14–1.86) | 1.76 (1.34–2.33) | 1.94 (1.49–2.53) | 1.22 (1.14–1.30) | ||
| Ever smoking | |||||||||
| No | 1 (ref) | 1.16 (0.93–1.46) | 1.32 (1.04–1.68) | 1.30 (1.03–1.64) | 1.66 (1.28–2.14) | 1.59 (1.24–2.02) | 1.16 (1.09–1.23) | 0.48 | |
| Yes | 1 (ref) | 1.06 (0.84–1.34) | 1.19 (0.93–1.52) | 1.36 (1.07–1.71) | 1.48 (1.14–1.92) | 1.79 (1.41–2.26) | 1.22 (1.15–1.29) | ||
| Family history of diabetes | |||||||||
| No | 1 (ref) | 1.11 (0.92–1.34) | 1.31 (1.08–1.60) | 1.40 (1.16–1.70) | 1.65 (1.34–2.04) | 1.71 (1.40–2.08) | 1.19 (1.14–1.25) | 0.59 | |
| Yes | 1 (ref) | 1.18 (0.86–1.62) | 1.15 (0.82–1.61) | 1.12 (0.80–1.56) | 1.35 (0.93–1.96) | 1.75 (1.25–2.44) | 1.18 (1.08–1.28) | ||
| Hypertension | |||||||||
| No | 1 (ref) | 1.13 (0.93–1.38) | 1.24 (1.01–1.52) | 1.32 (1.08–1.61) | 1.54 (1.24–1.91) | 1.80 (1.47–2.21) | 1.20 (1.14–1.26) | <.001 | |
| Yes | 1 (ref) | 1.09 (0.81–1.46) | 1.34 (0.98–1.82) | 1.37 (1.01–1.84) | 1.58 (1.13–2.22) | 1.47 (1.08–2.01) | 1.14 (1.05–1.24) | ||
All models were adjusted for age, race (White or non-White), family history of diabetes (yes or no), alcohol consumption (0, 0.1–4.9, 5–9.9, 10–14.9, ≥15 g/day), total calorie intake (quintiles), smoking status (never, quit≥10yrs, quit<10 yrs, or current smokers), intake of dietary factors including trans fat, polyunsaturated fat to saturated fat ratio, cereal fiber, whole grain, and glycemic load (quintiles), body mass index (<18.5, 18.5–24.9, 25–29.9, 30–34.9, ≥35 kg/m2), high blood pressure at baseline (yes or no), medication use at baseline (i.e., betablocker, thiazide diuretic, furosemide-like diuretic, calcium channel blocker, other antihypertensive drug and antiarrhythmic drug) (yes or no) and physical activity (<3, 3–8.9, 9–17.9, 18–26.9, ≥27 MET-h/week)
Number of cases: age (<60, n=1033; ≥60, n=1305), body mass index (<25, n=441; 25–29.9, n=1277; ≥30, n=620), physical activity (<25, n=1512; ≥25, n=826), diet quality (<median, n=1384; ≥median, n=954), ever smoking (no, n=1137; yes, n=1201), family history of diabetes (no, n=1761; yes, n=577), hypertension (no, n=1028; yes, n=1310)