Table 2.
Results of multivariable analysis for the association between preceding birth intervals and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Bangladesh: BDHS 1996–2014
| Predictors | First-day neonatal mortality n=21 382 |
Early neonatal mortality n=21 382 |
Small birth size n=11 022 |
|||
| aOR (95% CI) | P value | aOR (95% CI) | P value | aOR (95% CI) | P value | |
| Preceding birth interval in months | ||||||
| <36 | 2.11 (1.17 to 3.78) | <0.05 | 1.58 (1.13 to 2.22) | <0.05 | 1.04 (0.90 to 1.20) | 0.08 |
| 36–59 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| ≥60 | 2.02 (1.10 to 3.73) | 1.23 (0.84 to 1.81) | 1.17 (1.02 to 1.34) | |||
| Mother’s age at childbirth (years) | ||||||
| ≤19 | 2.51 (1.35 to 4.66) | <0.05 | 1.53 (1.02 to 2.28) | <0.05 | 1.01 (0.83 to 1.21) | 0.68 |
| 20–34 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| ≥35 | 1.34 (0.67 to 2.69) | 1.46 (0.93 to 2.29) | 1.10 (0.89 to 1.36) | |||
| Birth order | ||||||
| 2–3 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| ≥4 | 1.48 (0.88 to 2.50) | 0.14 | 1.27 (0.92 to 1.75) | 0.15 | 1.02 (0.89 to 1.16) | 0.81 |
| Maternal education | ||||||
| None | 0.97 (0.49 to 1.94) | 0.80 | 0.94 (0.60 to 1.46) | 0.94 | 1.09 (0.91 to 1.30) | 0.05 |
| Primary | 1.15 (0.62 to 2.11) | 0.98 (0.65 to 1.50) | 0.91 (0.77 to 1.07) | |||
| Secondary or higher | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| Wealth status | ||||||
| Poorest quintile | 0.76 (0.34 to 1.68) | 0.89 | 0.86 (0.53 to 1.40) | 0.68 | 1.30 (1.05 to 1.61) | <0.05 |
| Second quintile | 0.92 (0.43 to 1.95) | 0.99 (0.61 to 1.63) | 1.34 (1.09 to 1.64) | |||
| Middle quintile | 0.97 (0.48 to 1.96) | 1.09 (0.70 to 1.72) | 1.12 (0.91 to 1.37) | |||
| Fourth quintile | 1.15 (0.58 to 2.28) | 0.80 (0.48 to 1.32) | 1.12 (0.93 to 1.37) | |||
| Richest quintile | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| Employment status | ||||||
| Currently working | 1.59 (0.99 to 2.56) | 0.05 | 1.30 (0.96 to 1.75) | 0.09 | 1.02 (0.87 to 1.19) | 0.83 |
| Not working | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| Area of residence | ||||||
| Urban | 1.10 (0.64 to 1.88) | 0.72 | 1.14 (0.80 to 1.63) | 0.46 | 1.09 (0.93 to 1.27) | 0.28 |
| Rural | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| Maternal BMI | ||||||
| Underweight | 0.58 (0.35 to 0.97) | <0.05 | 0.70 (0.52 to 0.94) | 0.05 | 1.19 (1.05 to 1.34) | <0.05 |
| Average | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| Overweight | 1.81 (0.90 to 3.65) | 1.36 (0.80 to 2.32) | 0.86 (0.70 to 1.07) | |||
| Obese | 1.84 (0.59 to 5.67) | 1.23 (0.53 to 2.89) | 0.86 (0.60 to 1.23) | |||
| Maternal desire of pregnancy | ||||||
| Yes | 1.09 (0.71 to 1.68) | 0.68 | 1.13 (0.84 to 1.51) | 0.43 | 0.92 (0.81 to 1.05) | 0.22 |
| No | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| Ever use of contraception | ||||||
| Yes | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| No | 2.20 (1.32 to 3.68) | <0.05 | 1.89 (1.35 to 2.64) | <0.001 | 1.23 (1.06 to 1.42) | <0.05 |
| No of ANC visits | ||||||
| None | 0.89 (0.29 to 2.73) | 0.62 | 1.61 (0.74 to 3.48) | 0.48 | 1.09 (0.84 to 1.42) | 0.79 |
| 1–3 | 1.21 (0.61 to 2.37) | 1.16 (0.71 to 1.89) | 1.03 (0.86 to 1.23) | |||
| ≥4 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| ANC by SBA | ||||||
| Yes | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| No | 1.01 (0.46 to 2.19) | 0.99 | 0.78 (0.43 to 1.42) | 0.42 | 1.05 (0.83 to 1.32) | 0.70 |
| History of any previous pregnancy loss | ||||||
| Yes | 1.31 (0.85 to 2.03) | 0.22 | 1.27 (0.94 to 1.71) | 0.12 | 1.04 (0.91 to 1.20) | 0.53 |
| No | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| Sex of infant | ||||||
| Male | 1.70 (1.09 to 2.64) | <0.05 | 1.32 (1.01 to 1.73) | <0.05 | 0.71 (0.63 to 0.80) | <0.001 |
| Female | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| Region | ||||||
| Barisal | 0.59 (0.27 to 1.30) | <0.05 | 0.82 (0.51 to 1.30) | <0.05 | 0.74 (0.59 to 0.92) | <0.001 |
| Chittagong | 0.34 (0.16 to 0.71) | 0.50 (0.32 to 0.77) | 1.16 (0.97 to 1.38) | |||
| Khulna | 0.72 (0.35 to 1.50) | 0.91 (0.57 to 1.44) | 0.96 (0.79 to 1.17) | |||
| Rajshahi | 1.12 (0.63 to 1.99) | 1.02 (0.68 to 1.53) | 0.73 (0.60 to 0.89) | |||
| Rangpur | 0.68 (0.35 to 1.29) | 0.99 (0.66 to 1.51) | 0.81 (0.65 to 0.99) | |||
| Sylhet | 0.83 (0.36 to 1.88) | 0.92 (0.53 to 1.61) | 1.24 (1.03 to 1.50) | |||
| Dhaka | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
*ORs were adjusted for maternal age at childbirth, birth order, maternal education, maternal wealth index, maternal employment status, area of residence, maternal BMI, maternal desire of pregnancy, ever use of contraceptive method, number of ANC visits, ANC by SBA, history of any previous pregnancy loss, sex of infant and region.
ANC, antenatal care; BDHS, Bangladesh Demographic and Health Surveys; BMI, body mass index; SBA, skilled birth attendants.