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. 2019 Mar 4;9:3367. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-38976-y

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Comparison of spatial soil carbon (representing 2000s) with two independent contemporary empirical datasets (panel a–c) over six land cover classes (Supplementary Fig. S2). Black line segments show the comparison between two empirical datasets of soil carbon. Output from LPJ-GUESS simulation before replacing NPP is marked as red. TF-realizations by replacing simulated NPP with the refined NPP derived from MODIS NPP and FLUXCOM GPP are marked as blue. Error bars show the range of results from replacing simulated NPP with the five refined NPP. Panel d and e show improvement of the best TF-realizations (using FLUXCOM MARS GPP and MODIS NPP) in magnitude for soil carbon comparing to WISE and SoilGrids at 2 m depth, respectively.