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. 2019 Mar 6;9:3767. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-39601-8

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Effects of urbanization on wild bee community. Relationship between the level of urban development (measured as proportional ISC within 2 km of the sampling site) and (A) bee observed sex ratio per site (OSR) (z = −4.73, d.f. = 23, p < 0.001); (B) ground-nesting bee abundance per site of females (red, t = −2.18, d.f. = 24, p = 0.04) and males (blue, t = 1.41, d.f. = 24,p = 0.17); and (C) cavity-nesting bee abundance per site of females (red, t = 1.98, d.f. = 24, p = 0.06) and males (blue, t = 3.36, d.f. = 24, p = 0.003). Fitted line in A represents GLM fit of female abundance offset by total abundance; in (B,C) lines represent GLM fit of female (red) or male (blue) abundance. Shaded regions represent standard error.