Table 1.
Phosphorus-based flame retardants and their combinations for PLA.
| PLA Type/Brand and Supplier | Main FR Component | FR Loading wt % | LOI% | UL94 | Cone Calorimetry Parameters (CCP) | TGA | Ref. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PHRR Reduction % | T 5% | Residue %/Max. T (°C) | ||||||
| PLA nonwoven fabric from Shenzhen Shengdefu Cellulon Co. Ltd., China. | cyclic phosphonate ester | - | 35 | - | 7 (A) | 207.2 | - | [46] |
| PLA (4032D) by Nature Works | Aluminum hypophosphite (AHP) | 30 | 29.5 | V-0 | 48.2 (C) | 332 | 22.4 | [47] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| PLA (4032D) (Mw 206,583 g/mo) by Nature Works | phosphorus-containing polymer or oligomer | 13.32 | 23.0 | V-2 | 4.7 (C) | 415 | 40.9 | [48] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| PLA from NatureWorks Ltd. | Organophophorus flame retardant | 30 | 32 | V-0 | - | 250 | 3.1 | [49] |
| (700 °C) | ||||||||
| N2 | ||||||||
| PLA (3052D) by Nature Works | Diphenolic biphosphate | 16 | 27.4 | V-0 | 19.62 (C) | 342 | 7.51 | [50] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| PLA (2002D) by NatureWorks | Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), Ammonium polyphosphate, boron phosphate, and tri-phenyl phosphate | 32 | 32.4 | V-0 | - | 295 | 2.8 | [51] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| PLA (4032D) by NatureWorks | Silicone rubber composites and ammonium polyphosphate | 20 | 29.2 | V-0 | 42.1(C) | 323 | 2.78 | [52] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| PLA (2002D) by Natureworks | Tris(2-hydroxyethyl) isocyanurate polyphosphate melamine (TPM) | 25 | 36.5 | V-0 | 68 (C) | 265 | 30.6 | [53] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| PLA (3052D) by NatureWorks | Chitosan with ammonium polyphosphate (APP) | 7 | 33.1 | V-0 | 17.4 (C) | - | 4.1 | [54] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| PLA grade (6202D) by NatureWorks | Lignin and ammonium polyphosphate (AP) | 20 | - | V-0 | 32.3 (B) | 320 | 14.3 | [55] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| Polylactide by NatureWorks | Charring agent (CNCA-DA) containing triazine and benzene rings and APP | 30 | 45.6 | V-0 | 10 (C) | 310 | 29.3 | [56] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| PLA by NatureWorks | Lanthanum oxide (La2O3), Ammonium polyphosphate((APP), an Oligomeric charring agent with triazine (CNCA-DA) | 24 | 42.7 | V-0 | 27 (C) | 316 | 4.2 | [57] |
| (700 °C), Air | ||||||||
| PLA (2002D from Cargill,) | POSS-modified nanofibrillated cellulose (PNFC), Ammonium polyphosphate (APP) | 15 | - | - | 45 (C**) | - | - | [58] |
| PLA resin (4032D) by NatureWorks | Microencapsulated ammonium polyphosphate (APP) and melamine (2:1), Starch | 30 | 41 | V-0 | 76 (C) | 25 | 22.2 | [59] |
| (600 °C),Air | ||||||||
| PLA resin (3051D) by NatureWorks | Phosphorus modified lignin {kraft lignin (P-K), organsolv lignin (P-O) | P-K 20 | - | V-0 | 23 (C) | - | 15 | [60] |
| 13 | ||||||||
| P-O 20 | - | V-0 | 33 (C) | (700 °C) Air | ||||
| PLA from NatureWorks supplied by Cargill | Starch, lignin, ammonium polyphosphate | 40 | 32 | V-0 | 50 (C) | - | - | [9] |
| PLA resin (3051D) by NatureWorks | Phosphorus, Microcrystalline and nano-crystalline cellulose (P-MCC &P-NCC), aluminum phytate (Al-PA) | P-MCC 20, | - | V-0 | 8 (C*) | - | - | [61] |
| P-NCC 20 | V-2 | 35 (C*) | - | - | ||||
| Al-PA, P-MCC 20 | - | V-2 | 38 (C*) | - | - | |||
Note: Sample type used for the cone calorimeter test: A denotes non-woven PLA, B is knitted PLA fabric, C is composite plate size 100 × 100 × 3 mm3, C* is composite plate size 100 × 100 × 4 mm3, C** is composite size 75 × 75 × 3 mm3.