Table 1.
Overall Cohort Demographics and Cardiovascular Disease Stratified by Low/Medium/High Contemporaneous NDVI Values (n=408) Within 250‐m‐Radius Circular Zone Surrounding the Participant Residences
| Categorical Variable, n (%) | Total, n=408 | Low Green 0.0 to 0.36 NDVI, n=136 | Medium Green 0.36 to 0.54 NDVI, n=136 | High Green 0.54 to 0.86 NDVI, n=136 | P Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | 0.078 | ||||
| Male | 210 (52%) | 60 (44%) | 72 (54%) | 78 (57%) | |
| Race | 0.013a | ||||
| White | 228 (56%) | 65 (48%) | 72 (53%) | 91 (67%) | |
| Black | 159 (39%) | 64 (47%) | 58 (43%) | 37 (27%) | |
| Other | 21 (5%) | 7 (5%) | 6 (4%) | 8 (6%) | |
| CVD risk factors | |||||
| Hypertension | 300 (75%) | 103 (76%) | 98 (74%) | 99 (74%) | 0.926 |
| Hyperlipidemia | 240 (60%) | 81 (60%) | 73 (55%) | 86 (64%) | 0.374 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 121 (30%) | 39 (29%) | 47 (35%) | 35 (26%) | 0.225 |
| Current smoker | 145 (36%) | 58 (43%) | 34 (26%) | 53 (39%) | 0.009a |
| High CVD riskb | 167 (61%) | 65 (61%) | 58 (60%) | 44 (64%) | 0.895 |
| Cardiovascular history | |||||
| Myocardial infarction | 128 (32%) | 37 (27%) | 47 (36%) | 44 (33%) | 0.325 |
| Stroke | 43 (8%) | 14 (10%) | 18 (14%) | 11 (8%) | 0.357 |
| CABG/PCI/stents | 113 (28%) | 33 (24%) | 39 (29%) | 41 (30%) | 0.488 |
| Heart failure | 78 (20%) | 23 (17%) | 30 (23%) | 25 (19%) | 0.452 |
| Medications | |||||
| β‐Blocker | 218 (55%) | 82 (62%) | 72 (55%) | 64 (48%) | 0.074 |
| ACE/ARB | 223 (56%) | 70 (53%) | 72 (55%) | 81 (60%) | 0.426 |
| Diuretic | 156 (39%) | 59 (44%) | 49 (38%) | 48 (36%) | 0.325 |
| Statin | 198 (50%) | 64 (48%) | 69 (53%) | 65 (49%) | 0.617 |
| Aspirin | 203 (51%) | 74 (56%) | 58 (44%) | 71 (53%) | 0.155 |
| Continuous variable, mean (SD) | |||||
| Age, y | 51.4 (10.8) | 52.5 (11.1) | 49.4 (10.5) | 52.3 (10.6) | 0.033a |
| BMI | 32.9 (8.2) | 33.0 (8.5) | 33.6 (8.6) | 32.0 (7.4) | 0.284 |
| Systolic blood pressure | 131.0 (20.5) | 131.8 (19.3) | 129.7 (19.8) | 131.4 (22.6) | 0.710 |
| Diastolic blood pressure | 80.7 (11.8) | 80.1 (11.0) | 80.8 (11.9) | 81.3 (12.5) | 0.747 |
| Lipid levels, mg/dL | |||||
| Cholesterol | 192.8 (53.0) | 191.3 (45.5) | 195.3 (62.2) | 191.4 (49.2) | 0.861 |
| HDL | 44.6 (13.0) | 47.6 (14.0) | 43.2 (13.4) | 43.0 (10.7) | 0.042a |
| LDL | 106.7 (40.9) | 107.0 (41.0) | 109.0 (41.2) | 103.4 (40.9) | 0.707 |
| Household income, ×10−3 | 36.9 (22.3) | 27.2 (15.7) | 36.5 (21.8) | 48.4 (24.0) | <0.001a |
| Area deprivation index | 109.2 (10.9) | 114.8 (8.0) | 108.7 (10.6) | 104.1 (11.0) | <0.001a |
| Roads within 50 m | 109.6 (49.2) | 114.1 (52.7) | 108.3 (51.8) | 106.3 (42.6) | 0.404 |
| PM2.5 | 13.8 (5.6) | 13.6 (5.6) | 13.1 (5.1) | 14.8 (6.1) | 0.045a |
ACE indicates angiotensin‐converting enzyme; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; BMI, body mass index; CABG, coronary artery bypass graft; CVD, cardiovascular disease; HDL, high‐density lipoprotein; LDL, low‐density lipoprotein; NDVI, normalized difference vegetation index; PCI, percutaneous coronary intervention; PM2.5, particulate matter <2.5 μm.
a
Significant difference between tertiles based on ANOVA or Chi‐squared analysis (P<0.05).
b
Estimated on the basis of a Framingham Risk Score (FRS) >20 or prior cardiovascular event.