Table 2.
Baseline Characteristics and Metabolite Concentrations by Incident Coronary Heart Disease Status in the SWHS and SMHSa
| Baseline Characteristics | Women, n=148 Pairs | Men, n=127 Pairs | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cases | Controls | P Value | Cases | Controls | P Value | |
| Age, y | 62.3±7.3 | 61.9±7.3 | 0.001 | 62.2±8.7 | 62.2±8.7 | 0.91 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 25.7±3.9 | 25.2±3.5 | 0.21 | 24.8±3.4 | 23.8±3.3 | 0.01 |
| WHR | 0.85±0.06 | 0.83±0.06 | 0.004 | 0.92±0.06 | 0.90±0.06 | 0.008 |
| DASH diet score | 45.1±7.5 | 46.8±6.5 | 0.04 | 43.8±8.3 | 43.4±8.6 | 0.76 |
| Cigarette smoking, pack‐year | 2.0±7.5 | 1.0±4.8 | 0.15 | 21.6±23.4 | 18.3±20.6 | 0.25 |
| Exercise, MET‐h/wk | 1.4±3.4 | 1.1±1.5 | 0.25 | 1.4±2.3 | 1.3±2.0 | 0.90 |
| Years of menstruation | 29.9±6.7 | 31.4±4.7 | 0.02 | ··· | ··· | ··· |
| History of diabetes mellitus | 24 (16.2) | 12 (8.1) | 0.03 | 16 (12.6) | 16 (12.6) | 0.99 |
| History of hypertension | 75 (50.7) | 42 (28.4) | <0.0001 | 77 (60.6) | 44 (34.7) | <0.0001 |
| History of dyslipidemia | 17 (11.5) | 13 (8.8) | 0.44 | 18 (14.2) | 12 (9.5) | 0.24 |
| Dietary TMA intakesb | ||||||
| Total TMA, mg/d | 401±119 | 415±121 | 0.31 | 433±118 | 429±124 | 0.79 |
| Animal‐sourced TMA, mg/d | 189±93 | 200±86 | 0.32 | 208±92 | 216±97 | 0.50 |
| Plant‐sourced TMA, mg/d | 212±71 | 215±73 | 0.68 | 226±69 | 214±69 | 0.19 |
| Choline, mg/d | 321±106 | 338±100 | 0.13 | 343±118 | 338±116 | 0.76 |
| Betaine, mg/d | 66±43 | 61±35 | 0.36 | 82±47 | 83±47 | 0.92 |
| Carnitine, mg/d | 15±9 | 16±11 | 0.32 | 20±12 | 20±12 | 0.75 |
| Blood CVD biomarkers | ||||||
| Total cholesterol, mg/dL | 187.7 (181.9, 193.6) | 181.2 (175.7, 186.9) | 0.13 | 185.3 (179.5, 191.2) | 169.9 (164.6, 175.4) | <0.0001 |
| LDL cholesterol, mg/dL | 103.9 (99.1, 108.8) | 99.2 (94.7, 103.9) | 0.17 | 105.8 (100.0, 111.8) | 92.2 (87.2, 97.5) | 0.0006 |
| HDL cholesterol, mg/dL | 41.6 (40.1, 43.1) | 43.4 (41.9, 45.0) | 0.10 | 35.8 (34.3, 37.4) | 37.4 (35.8, 39.0) | 0.14 |
| Triglycerides, mg/dL | 189.0 (172.7, 206.7) | 169.1 (154.5, 185.0) | 0.07 | 209.9 (188.5, 233.7) | 171.3 (153.9, 190.7) | 0.006 |
| hs‐CRP, mg/L | 1.16 (0.90, 1.50) | 0.77 (0.59, 0.99) | 0.01 | 1.99 (1.53, 2.60) | 1.03 (0.79, 1.34) | 0.0001 |
| Urinary TMA metabolitesc | ||||||
| TMAO, nmol/mg creatinine | 391.1 (326.8, 468.1) | 351.3 (293.3, 420.7) | 0.24 | 334.6 (286.9, 390.2) | 283.6 (242.7, 331.4) | 0.20 |
| Choline, nmol/mg creatinine | 70.4 (63.1, 78.7) | 68.5 (61.3, 76.4) | 0.65 | 69.6 (62.4, 77.6) | 65.5 (58.7, 73.0) | 0.40 |
| Betaine, nmol/mg creatinine | 115.8 (100.2, 133.9) | 101.8 (88.1, 117.7) | 0.19 | 130.3 (109.5, 155.1) | 122.9 (103.3, 146.3) | 0.64 |
| Carnitine, nmol/mg creatinine | 38.0 (31.9, 45.2) | 38.5 (32.4, 45.8) | 0.90 | 35.5 (29.5, 42.6) | 35.8 (29.8, 42.9) | 0.95 |
BMI indicates body mass index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; DASH, Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension; HDL, high‐density lipoprotein; hs‐CRP, high‐sensitivity C‐reactive protein; LDL, low‐density lipoprotein; MET, metabolic equivalent; SMHS, Shanghai Men's Health Study; SWHS, Shanghai Women's Health Study; TMA, trimethylamine; TMAO, trimethylamine N‐oxide; WHR, waist–hip ratio.
Data were mean±SD, number (percentage), or geometric mean (95% CI). P values were obtained by using a paired t test for continuous variables and the Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel test for categorical variables.
Dietary intakes were adjusted for total energy intake and standardized to intakes per 2000 kcal.
Urinary metabolite concentration was standardized by creatinine concentration and expressed as nmol/mg creatinine. TMAO concentration was shown after excluding participants who reported recent use of oral antibiotics.