(a) Evolution of 3-dimensional (3D) physiologically relevant microfluidic models for nephrotoxicity screening. ECM, extracellular matrix. Adapted with permission from Wilmer MJ, Ng CP, Lanz HL, et al. Kidney-on-a-chip technology for drug-induced nephrotoxicity screening. Trends Biotechnol. 2016;34:156–170.8 (b) Drug testing challenge and dilemma. Reproduced from Dehne EM, Hasenberg T, Marx U. The ascendance of microphysiological systems to solve the drug testing dilemma. Future Sci OA. 2017;3:FSO185.9 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.