Table 3.
Nemertean species analyzed for TTX content.
| Species | Origin | Toxin/-s | Sample | Extraction and Analysis | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Class Hoplonemertea | Order Monostilifera | ||||
| Amphiporus lactifloreus | Llandudno, Wales, UK, or Rhosneigr, Wales, UK | TTX-like cpds | Acidic whole body extract | UV spectroscopy and HPLC | [72] |
| Amphiporus sp. | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | TTX + analogs | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC and GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Nipponnemertes bimaculata a | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | Very low TTX | Acidic MeOH extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Malacobdella japonica | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | TTX + analogs Anhydro-TTX |
Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Malacobdella grossa | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | Antimicrobial activity. No TTX. | Bacteria - whole body homogenate | Confocal laser microscopy after TTX antibody labeling | [80] |
| Nemertellina yamaokai | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | None found | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Nipponnemertes punctatula | Otsuchi Bay, Iwate, Jpn | TTX, epi-, anhydro-TTX | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Paranemertes sp. | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | None found | Acidic methanol extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Quasitetrastemma nigrifrons b | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | None found | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Quasitetrastemma stimpsoni c | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | (TTX and analogues) Not analyzed |
Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Quasitetrastemma stimpsoni c | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | Bact. cultures Antimicrob activity. TTX. | Bacteria from whole body homogenate | Confocal laser microscopy after TTX antibody labeling | [80] |
| Quasitetrastemma stimpsoni | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | Very low TTX | Acidic methanol extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Class Palaeonemertea | |||||
| Cephalothrix linearis | Shimoda, Shizuoka, Jpn | TDA-like, TTX, anhydro-, epi-TTX | Proboscis, body | SEC, TLC, el.phoresis, HPLC, GC-C9 base | [65] |
| Cephalothrix linearis | Shimoda, Shizuoka, Jpn | TDA-like | Handling stimulus secretion | SEC, TLC, el.phoresis, HPLC, GC-C9 base | [65,66] |
| Cephalothrix rufifrons | Llandudno, Wales, UK, or Rhosneigr, Wales, UK | TTX-like cpds | Acidic whole body extract | UV spectroscopy and HPLC | [72] |
| Cephalotrix rufifrons d | Cornwall, UK | None in extract, but TTX in bacteria isolate | Acidic whole body extract and bacteria isolates | HPLC-MS/MS of extract and isolates | [85] |
| Cephalothrix simula | Hiroshima Bay, Jpn | TTX, epi-, anhydro-TTX | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC and GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Cephalothrix simula | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | TTX, epi-, anhydro-TTX | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC and GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Cephalothrix simula | Otsuchi Bay, Iwate, Jpn | TTX, epi-, anhydro-TTX | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC and GC-MS- C9 base | [69] |
| Cephalothrix simula e | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | TTX-Bacillus sp. | Bacteria isolates | Immunovisualization | [78,79] |
| Cephalothrix simula | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | 7 TTX derivatives | Acidic MeOH extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Cephalotrix simula | Cornwall, UK | TTX and derivatives | Acidic whole body extract and bacteria isolates | HPLC-MS/MS of extract and isolates | [85] |
| Cephalothrix sp. | Hiroshima Bay, Jpn | TTX, epi-, anhydro-TTX | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, SEC, IEC. TLC, HPLC, GCMS-C9 base | [67] |
| Cephalothrix sp. | Hiroshima Bay, Jpn | TTX, epi-, anhydro-TTX | Whole body, frozen | Activated charcoal, SEC, IEC, cryst from acidic CH3OH soln, GCMS-C9 base, NMR + MS | [68] |
| Cephalothrix sp. | Hiroshima Bay, Jpn | TTX | Whole body, cross-section | Anti-TTX antibodies | [81] |
| Tubulanus annulatus | Cornwall, UK | None found | Acidic whole body extract and bacteria isolates | HPLC-MS/MS of extract and isolates | [85] |
| Tubulanus polymorphus f | Not stated | TTX | Not stated | Immunostaining | [87] |
| Tubulanus punctatus | Seto Inland sea Hiroshima, Jpn | Anhydro-TTX | Whole body | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [64] |
| Tubulanus punctatus | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | Very low TTX | Acidic MeOH extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Class Pilidiophora | Order Heteronemertea | ||||
| Cerebratulus marginatus | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | None found | Acidic MeOH extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Dushia atra f | Not stated | TTX | Not stated | Immunostaining | [87,88] |
| Kulikovia alborostrata | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | Very low TTX | Acidic MeOH extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Kulikovia manchenkoi | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | TTX + 3 deriv | Acidic MeOH extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Lineus alborostratus | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | TTX, anhydro-, epi-TTX | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Lineus alborostratus | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | TTX | Whole body | Immunostaining | [82] |
| Lineus alborostratus | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | Bact cultured for TTX. Antimicrob activity. | Bacteria from whole body homogenate | Confocal laser microscopy after TTX antibody labeling | [80] |
| Lineus bilineatus | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | None found | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Lineus fuscoviridis | Seto Inland sea, Hiroshima, Jpn | TTX, anhydro-TTX | Whole body | Defatted, SEC, IEC. TLC, HPLC., GC-MS-C9 base | [64] |
| Lineus longissimus | Llandudno, Wales, UK, or Rhosneigr, Wales, UK | TTX-like cpds | Acidic whole body extract and mucus | UV spectroscopy and HPLC | [72] |
| Lineus longissimus | Koster Fiord, Swe, and Millport, Scot, UK | <5 kDa cpd | Mucus + Vibrio cultures | Various purification methods | [25] |
| Lineus ruber | Llandudno, Wales, UK, or Rhosneigr, Wales, UK | TTX-like cpds | Acidic whole body extract | UV spectroscopy and HPLC | [72] |
| Lineus sanguineus g | Llandudno, Wales, UK, or Rhosneigr, Wales, UK | TTX-like cpds | Acidic whole body extract | UV spectroscopy and HPLC | [72] |
| Lineus torquatus | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | TTX, anhydro-, epi-TTX | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Lineus viridis | Llandudno, Wales, UK, or Rhosneigr, Wales, UK | TTX-like cpds | Acidic whole body extract | UV spectroscopy and HPLC | [72] |
| Micrura akkeshiensis | Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Jpn | None found | Acidic whole body extract | Defatted, charcoal purif, HPLC, GC-MS-C9 base | [69] |
| Micrura bella | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | None found | Acidic MeOH extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Micrura verrilli f | Not stated | TTX | Not stated | Immunostaining | [87,88] |
| Nipponomicrura uchidai | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | None found | Acidic methanol extract | HPLC-MS/MS | [83] |
| Riseriellus occultus | Llandudno, Wales, UK, or Rhosneigr, Wales, UK | TTX-like cpds | Acidic whole body extract | UV spectroscopy and HPLC | [72] |
| Yininemertes pratensis | Haengjunaru, Han river Estuary, South Korea | TTX + analogs, derivatives. Tox cpd mass 291.1 | EtOH extract | Dry homogenate lysis in pure EtOH, hydrophobic HPLC, MALDI-TOF | [84] |
| Class Pilidiophora | Genus Hubrechtella | ||||
| Hubrechtella juliae | Peter the Great Bay, Rus/Jpn | Bact cultured for TTX. Antimicrob activity. | Bacteria from whole body homogenate | Confocal laser microscopy after TTX antibody labeling | [80] |
Abbreviations: Cpd—compound; Cryst—crystallization; Deriv—derivatization/derivative; El.phoresis—electrophoresis; EtOH; ethanol; GC-MS-C9 base—gas chromatography—mass spectrometry of TTX C9 base derivative; IEC—ion-exchange chromatography; MeOH—methanol; Purif —purification; SEC—size exclusion chromatography (gel filtration); TDA—tetrodonic acid. a In source referred to as Collarenemertes bimaculata. b In source referred to as Tetrastemma nigrifrons (synonymous). c In source referred to as Tetrastemma stimpsoni (synonymous). d In source referred to as Cephalothrix rubifrons. e Host organism for bacteria claimed to contain TTX. f Conference abstract only. g In source referred to as Ramphogordius sanguineus (synonymous). Species are denoted according to WoRMS, World Register of Marine Species as of 19-02-11 [54].