Appendix Table 5.
Estimates of Lead and Reading Scores Based on Aggregate Means
| Outcome = reading score | Outcome = average lead level first stage (3) | ||
|---|---|---|---|
|
| |||
| OLS weighted (1) | IV (2) | ||
| Geometric mean of lead | −0.408 [0.148] |
−1.251 [0.422] |
|
| African American | 11.82 [6.567] |
13.67 [5.673] |
0.922 [1.042] |
| White | 13.04 [6.373] |
15.09 [5.655] |
1.001 [1.051] |
| Hispanic | 11.28 [6.428] |
13.03 [5.540] |
0.457 [1.026] |
| Asian | 15.16 [6.660] |
16.83 [5.847] |
0.548 [1.079] |
| Always free/reduced lunch | −5.477 [1.045] |
−5.344 [0.995] |
0.250 [0.204] |
| Sometimes free/reduced lunch | −4.329 [0.857] |
−4.032 [0.814] |
0.289 [0.172] |
| Male | −3.335 [0.605] |
−3.291 [0.569] |
0.0499 [0.0980] |
| Birth weight in kg | 1.703 [0.546] |
1.553 [0.527] |
−0.158 [0.113] |
| Mother < high school | −4.603 [1.258] |
−4.385 [1.265] |
0.266 [0.283] |
| Mother high school grad | −2.476 [0.937] |
−2.828 [1.014] |
−0.239 [0.184] |
| Mother college+ | 1.163 [1.012] |
1.172 [1.005] |
−0.0619 [0.193] |
| Married at birth | −1.178 [0.920] |
−1.571 [0.841] |
−0.475 [0.165] |
| Birth order | −0.615 [0.369] |
−0.498 [0.330] |
0.154 [0.0690] |
| Birth weight missing—imputed | 2.358 [1.909] |
3.163 [1.860] |
0.425 [0.385] |
| Maternal education | −3.558 [1.835] |
−3.879 [1.838] |
−0.159 [0.373] |
| Families: Income in 2012 below poverty level | 2.703 [5.647] |
3.707 [5.216] |
0.497 [1.563] |
| Median family income (in 2010 inflation adjusted dollars) | −4.59e–05 [4.15e–05] |
−2.51e–05 [3.21e–05] |
1.25e–05 [9.18e–06] |
| Share of housing built post-1978 | 4.704 [4.350] |
8.252 [4.112] |
3.891 [1.260] |
| HRC certificates at birth | −8.275 [1.760] |
||
| HRC certificates at birth squared | 20.38 [8.086] |
||
| DOH certificates at birth | −8.308 [2.245] |
||
| DOH certificates at birth squared | 17.57 [4.889] |
||
| Share of housing to ever receive a certificate | −0.993 [0.870] |
−0.765 [0.911] |
0.235 [0.207] |
| Observations | 1,989 | 1,989 | 1,989 |
| R2 | 0.865 | 0.885 | |
Notes: Each observation is a birth year × census tract cell. All variables represent the average for that year of birth and census tract. For example, the outcome (reading test scores) is the average third grade reading test score of all children born in a given year living in a given tract as of the first lead test. All covariates similarly defined (i.e., lead is the average lead level for these children; African American is the share African American in that year of birth and census tract). All regressions weighted by the number of children in each cell.