Figure 4.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in brain insulin resistance. The results of recent studies indicate the role of mitochondrial abnormalities in the brain IR. Increased production of mitochondrial ROS (mROS), cytochrome c release, as well as functional and ultrastructural changes of mitochondria have been confirmed in IR brain. Interestingly, brain mitochondrial dysfunction and Aβ accumulation may be responsible for disturbances in apoptosis, synaptic plasticity, cognitive decline, and cerebral degeneration in IR patients. Abbreviations: Aβ, amyloid β-peptides; APAF1, apoptotic protease activating factor 1; BAD, Bcl-2-associated death promoter; BAK, Bcl-2 homologous antagonist killer; BAX, Bcl-2-associated X protein; cyt c, cytochrome c; mROS, mitochondrial ROS; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; ROS, reactive oxygen species.