Table 1.

Overview of information sources

Year	Authors	Sample	Findings
2008	Johnston et al1	More than 46,000 8th, 10th, and 12th grade students from 386 high schools	Rates of use and risk factors for most licit and illicit drugs among American high school students
2004	Beyers et al2	32,403 adolescents; 48% male; 85% White	Risk factors for substance use include perceived availability, low school commitment, poor family management, family history of substance use, interaction with antisocial peers, sensation seeking. Protective factors include social skills and a belief in the moral order
2007	Bond et al3	2678 eighth grade students in 26 secondary schools; 47% male	School connectedness and social connectedness associated with a decreased likelihood for initiating smoking
1998	Flay et al4	6695 seventh grade students; 50% male; 32.5% White; 35.5% Hispanic; 15.5% African American	Family and peer use of cigarettes, alcohol use, and marijuana use are all risk factors for cigarette use
2007	Xue et al5	824 9th graders; 50% male; 83% African American; 17% White	Participation in prosocial activities is protective against cigarette smoking
1995	Aaron et al6	1211 adolescents aged 12–16 y; 51% boys; 73% White	Physical activity is protective against smoking in girls but increases risk of alcohol consumption in boys
1994	Kelder et al7	2376 6th-12th grade students	Students who experimented with smoking were more likely to become regular smokers
2000	Blum et al8	10,803 7th-12th high school students; 71% White, 9% Hispanic, and 16% African American	For younger students, highest rates of smoking and drinking were among White
1975	Jessor and Jessor9	432 junior high school students	Alcohol use is associated with onset of sexual intercourse and onset of marijuana use
2009	Nelson et al10	Biennial 1993–2005 data from state school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey for 9th-12th grade students	Within particular geographic locations, rates of adolescent alcohol use is correlated with rates of adult alcohol use and rates of adult drunk driving
2008	Beebe et al11	134 Native Americans, aged 13–19 y	Nonparental role models, strong family communication, and religious involvement are protective against use of alcohol and other drugs
2007	Leaver-Dunn12	1690 10th-12th grade students; 81% White	Participation in recreational activities is protective against alcohol abuse
2007	Watt and Rogers13	11,413 adolescents aged 12–17 y; 81% White; 19% African American	White adolescents are more likely to drink alcohol than African American adolescents, but the difference is almost entirely explained by influence of peers and family members
2007	Lonczak et al14	97 youth aged 13–19 y; 100% Native American; 44% male	Youth are more likely to begin using alcohol if they live in a single-parent home
2007	Walls et al15	603 Native American families with female caretakers of youths aged 10–13 y	Caregiver substance abuse influences adolescent substance abuse
1991	Wallace and Bachman16	77,500 adolescents; 77.5% White; 11.9% African American	Native American and White adolescents use alcohol more frequently than other racial group, largely because of lifestyle differences
2004	Brook et al17	1332 7th-10th grade students from East Harlem; primarily African American and Puerto Rican	Early illicit drug use is associated with risky sexual behavior later in young adulthood
1994	Lowry et al18	11,631 adolescents from 124 high schools	Students who do not use illegal substances are least likely to report high-risk sexual behaviors
2004	Patton et al19	5769 students aged 10–15 y	Early-onset puberty increases risk for substance use
2008	Cleveland et al20	91,778 students from grades 6, 8, 10, and 12; 90% White	Boys exhibit higher levels of substance use than girls
2005	van den Bree and Pickworth21	13,718 high school students aged 11–21 y	Peer involvement with substances, delinquency, and school problems increase the risk for marijuana use
2006	Herman-Stahl et al22	17,709 adolescents aged 12–17 y; 51.1% male; 62.8% White; 14.6% African American; 15.9% Hispanic	Low religiosity, binge drinking, and selling drugs increase risk of methamphetamine use
1997	Shrier et al23	3054 9th-12th grade students	Marijuana and cocaine use associated with high-risk sexual behavior
2007	Guxens et al24	1056 seventh grade students; 52.2% male	Single-parent household increases risk for adolescent marijuana use
2001	Brook et al25	3 samples: 739 predominately white adolescents from the Northeast (50% male), 1900 adolescents from East Harlem (55% male), and 1374 adolescents from Colombia (51% male)	Risk factors for marijuana use: rebelliousness, sensation seeking, depression, and delinquency. Protective factors: intolerance for deviance, church attendance, and careful reasoning
2004	Brown et al26	1354 sixth grade students; 49.7% male; 77.4% White; 22.6% African American	Developmental patterns of adolescent marijuana use differ between White and African Americans
1992	Beauvais27	NA, literature review	Native American adolescents are more likely to use marijuana than adolescents from other racial or ethnic groups
1988	Binion et al28	13- to 17-year-old Native American youth from the Add Health survey	Native Americans are more likely to use marijuana in response to feelings of boredom
2008	Terry-McElrath et al29	82,106 high school seniors from 1977–2005; split evenly by gender; 80% White	Girls are more likely than boys to plan to abstain from marijuana
2007	Springer et al30	15,240 adolescents; 51.4% male; 61.4% White; 14.1% Hispanic; 13.9% African American	Methamphetamine use associated with low religiosity, high binge drinking, selling drugs, sexual risk behaviors; rates are higher among boys, White, and Hispanics
2008	Johnston et al31	Nationally representative sample of secondary school students followed longitudinally beginning in 1977	Trends of use for most licit and illicit drugs among American high school students
2006	Teter et al32	4580 college students; 50% male; 65% White	Lifetime and past-year rates of prescription stimulant use were 8.3% and 5.9%, respectively; rates highest among White
2007	McCabe et al33	1086 secondary school students; 46% male; 52% White; 45% African American	Combined medical/nonmedical use of prescription drugs is more common than nonmedical use alone
2009	Ford34	17,875 adolescents aged 12–17 y; 51.18% male; 60.02% White	Rates of over-the-counter drug abuse are increasing; more common among older, female, and low-income adolescents
2006	Arria and Wish35	NA, literature review	College students more likely to use prescription stimulants than noncollege students due to lifestyle differences

Abbreviation: NA, not available.