Fig. 1.

Implant-based vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) versus precision ultrasound (U/S) neuromodulation. a A schematic of the neurons within the vagus nerve, exemplary innervated organs, and the common cervical position used for VNS devices. Stimulation of the cervical vagus results in stimulation of both target and non-target efferent and afferent pathways^1–10. Clinical implementation of miniature stimulators and advanced electrode designs that can be implanted closer to the target organ (for precision stimulation of axons entering only that organ) is challenging and remains elusive^9,17,18. b A schematic of precision organ-based neuromodulation in which the innervation points of known axonal populations are targeted for stimulation using focused pulsed U/S. Targets investigated herein include innervation points within the spleen and sensory terminals within the liver