Table 4.
Relative risk of stuntinga associated with sociodemographic indices
| Risk ratio (95% confidence interval) | p | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Female sex (v. male) | 1.10 | (1.00–1.22) | 0.057 |
| Age | 1.08 | (1.06–1.09) | <0.001 |
| Ethnicity | |||
| Malay | 1.00 | ||
| Indian | 0.66 | (0.52–0.83) | <0.001 |
| Chinese | 0.68 | (0.55–0.83) | <0.001 |
| Bumiputera/Orang Asli | 0.96 | (0.65–1.40) | 0.818 |
| Other | 0.91 | (0.42–1.93) | 0.796 |
| BMI-for-agea status | |||
| Underweight | 1.19 | (1.02–1.39) | 0.030 |
| Normal | 1.00 | ||
| Overweight or obese | 0.79 | (0.69–0.90) | 0.001 |
| Birth order | |||
| 1 | 1.00 | ||
| 2 | 1.03 | (0.92–1.14) | 0.628 |
| 3 | 0.99 | (0.84–1.17) | 0.936 |
| 4+ | 1.05 | (0.83–1.31) | 0.704 |
| Maternal height (cm) category | |||
| 160+ | 1.00 | ||
| 155–159 | 1.03 | (0.83–1.28) | 0.765 |
| 150–154 | 1.06 | (0.87–1.29) | 0.586 |
| 145–149 | 1.44 | (1.18–1.76) | <0.001 |
| <145 | 1.53 | (1.21–1.92) | <0.001 |
| Maternal current underweight (v. BMI ⩾18.5 kg/m2) | 0.86 | (0.58–1.27) | 0.440 |
| Rooms per household member | |||
| Bedrooms | 1.04 | (0.79–1.36) | 0.787 |
| Bathrooms | 0.67 | (0.46–0.98) | 0.036 |
| Living areasb | 1.16 | (0.73–1.85) | 0.519 |
| Type of toilet | |||
| None, bucket or hanging latrine | 1.00 | ||
| Bore hole toiletc | 0.57 | (0.25–1.30) | 0.182 |
| Pour flush toilet | 0.41 | (0.18–0.89) | 0.025 |
| Flush toilet with septic tank | 0.38 | (0.18–0.84) | 0.017 |
| Flush toilet connected with sewerage system | 0.46 | (0.21–1.02) | 0.055 |
| Toilet shared with other household (v. not shared) | 1.72 | (1.07–2.74) | 0.025 |
| Main source of drinking water | |||
| Unprotected sourced | 1.00 | ||
| Public standpipe or other protected sourcee | 0.52 | (0.38–0.73) | <0.001 |
| Piped into yard | 0.25 | (0.15–0.39) | <0.001 |
| Piped into house | 0.35 | (0.30–0.41) | <0.001 |
| Main method of garbage disposal | |||
| Buried, burned or thrown | 1.00 | ||
| Collected and thrown for recycling | 1.06 | (0.84–1.34) | 0.603 |
| Collected irregularly by local authority | 1.39 | (1.02–1.89) | 0.036 |
| Collected regularly by local authority | 1.22 | (1.05–1.41) | 0.011 |
BMI, body mass index.
Estimates based on mixed-effects Poisson regression models adjusted for all other variables above, and for clustering at the household level.
a
Stunting and BMI-for-age were classified using the Centers for Disease Control 2000 reference.
b
Living areas include dining rooms but not kitchens.
c
Bore hole toilet both with or without cover.
d
Unprotected sources: unprotected dug well, or water taken directly from pond or stream.
e
Protected sources: protected dug well or spring, or water from bottles or tanker truck.