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(a) Charge–discharge curves of vanadium redox flow batteries (VRB) containing pure Nafion, 5%@Nafion/SiO2@240°C, 5%@Nafion/SiO2@270°C, and 5%@Nafion/SiO2@300°C membranes at a current density of 40 mA/cm; (b) charge-discharge curves of VRB containing 5%@Nafion/SiO2@270°C membranes at different current densities; (c) cycle performance of VRB containing 5%@Nafion/SiO2@270°C membranes; and (d) self-discharge curves of VRFB assembled with pure Nafion and 5%@Nafion/SiO2@270°C membranes.
