TABLE 2.

Summary of trials using RS interventions and measuring renal parameters¹

								Nitrogen			Plasma
Study (reference)	Intervention	Population	Group size, n	Study duration	Albu-minuria	CrCl	BUN	Urinary	Fecal	Cecal NH4	IS	PCS	Other findings
Healthy animals
Kalmokoff et al. (74)	5% HAMSRS2 vs. cellulose	Male BioBreeding control rats	8	4 wk	—	—	↓	—	—	—	—	—	—
Younes et al. (75)	25% RS (crude potato starch) vs. digestible starch	Male Wistar rats	10	3 wk	—	—	↓	↓	↑	↓	—	—	↑ urea transferred to cecum, ↑ nitrogen balance
Diabetic animals
Koh et al. (77)	5%, 10%, or 20% HAMSRS2-supplemented diet vs. normal corn starch	Male STZ-induced T1D SD rats	8	4 wk	↔	↔	—	—	—	—	—	—
Koh et al. (78)	20% HAMSRS2-supplemented diet vs. normal corn starch	Male Zucker diabetic fatty rats	8	6 wk	↓	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	↓ renal histopathology scores ↓ kidney weight
CKD animals
Younes et al. (76)	20% RS (crude potato starch) vs. fiber-free diet	Unilateral nephrectomized male Wistar rats	10	17 d	—	—	↓	↓	↑	↓	—	—
Vaziri et al. (79)2	59% HAMSRS2 vs. low fiber	Adenine-induced CKD male SD rats	9	3 wk	↓	↑	↔	—	—	—	—	—	↓ interstitial fibrosis ↓ renal NF-κB p65, MCP-1
Kieffer et al. (82)2	59% HAMSRS2 vs. low fiber	Adenine-induced CKD male SD rats	9	3 wk	—	—	—	—	—	—	↓	—	↓ urinary IS, p-cresol, hippurate ↑ serum IAA, ↓ serum uric acid
Human studies
Sirich et al. (80)	15–30 g/d HAMSRS2 vs. control starch	HD patients (male and female)	20	6 wk	↔	—	↔	—	—	—	↓	↓
Tayebi Khosroshahi et al. (81)	20–25 g/d HAMSRS2 vs. regular wheat flour biscuits	HD patients (male and female)	22	8 wk	↔	—	↓	—	—	—	—	—	↓ serum creatinine ↓ serum uric acid

¹BUN, blood urea nitrogen; CKD, chronic kidney disease; CrCl, creatinine clearance; HAMS, high-amylose maize starch; HD, hemodialysis; IAA, indole acetic acid; IS, indoxyl sulfate; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; PCS, p-cresyl sulfate; RS, resistant starch; SD, Sprague-Dawley; STZ, streptozotocin; T1D, type 1 diabetes; ↑, increased; ↓, decreased; ↔, no change; —, not reported.

²Using the same cohort.