Table 1.

Summary of effects from combined exposure to stress and several developmental toxicants on neuroendocrine and immune endpoints in rodents

Toxicant	Stressor	Male	Female	Ref
BPA (prenatal)	Forced swimming (adolescence)	Failed upregulation of pituitary corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1	↑ anxious coping behavior, ↓ corticosterone response; failed down regulation of hypothalamic glucocorticoid receptor expression	[21]
Alcohol (prenatal)	Restraint (prenatal)	Delayed & abbreviated fetal testosterone surge, feminized sexual behavior	Not studied	[28, 29]
DBP (prenatal)	Dexamethasone (prenatal)	↓ fetal intra-testicular testosterone levels, ↓ expression of gonadal steroidogenesis genes, ↑ severity & incidence of reproductive organ malformations	Not studied	[41]
Pb (prenatal)	Restraint (prenatal)	Disrupted mesocorticolimbic serotonin function and altered delay discounting behavioral performance (trend only, not significant)	↓ frontal cortex dopamine levels; ↑ circulating corticosterone levels, ↑ learning deficits; ↑ impulsive choice behavior	[48, 49, 50, 51]
Chlorpyrifos (neonatal)	Dexamethasone (prenatal)	↓ serotonin turnover, ↓ upregulation of serotonin receptor & transport protein expression, ↑ hyperactivity	↓ choline transport protein binding, ↓ choline acetyltransferase activity, ↓ postsynaptic receptor binding	[65, 66, 67]
Diesel exhaust	Nest restriction (prenatal)	↑ expression of microglial toll-like receptor-4 and caspase-1, ↑ pro-inflammatory bias, ↑ anxiety	No interaction observed	[75]

BPA: bisphenol a; DBP: dibutyl phthalate; Pb: lead