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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2019 Mar 18.
Published in final edited form as: Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017 Nov 15;15(3):168–180. doi: 10.1038/nrgastro.2017.141

Figure 2. Summary of opioid-induced effects within the gastrointestinal system.

Figure 2

Opioid-induced adverse effects in the gastrointestinal system are primarily attributed to the activation of opioid receptors (μ-type, κ-type, δ-type) within the enteric nervous system, particularly in smooth muscle cells and in the terminals of sympathetic and sensory peripheral neurons in the gastrointestinal tract60. Consequences (symptoms) associated with opioid use include nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal distention, spasms and/or gastro-oesophageal reflux.