Table 2.

Features of Studies Investigating Controlled Breathing Interventions and Substance Craving

Reference	Sample	Diagnosis	CB intervention	Control	Craving measure	Findings
De Zeni and Araujo69	18–40 years 100% male Detoxification unit Brazil	Cocaine dependence	n = 32; Deep breathing Total time: 10 min	None	CCQB VAS	Pre–post comparison Mean craving reduction of 32.1% in CCQB scores (t(32) = 4.55, p < 0.001) and 65.4% in VAS scores (t(32) = 6.32, p < 0.001) immediately after deep breathing
McClernon et al.67	18–60 years 33% male Community sample United States	Nicotine dependence	n = 21*; Controlled breathing over 12 sec every 30 min over 4 h Total time: 240 min	n = 21*; Stayed in quiet room (light reading)	SJWQ - craving subscale	CB intervention vs. control comparison Larger mean craving reduction (F(1, 7) = 22.44, p = 0.002). Means and SDs were not reported.
Shahab et al.68	18–55 years 54% male Community sample United States	Nicotine dependence	n = 48; Yogic breathing (Total time: 15 min) Over 24 h Average yogic breathing of 7.7 times outside laboratory over 24 h	n = 48; 10 min video about yogic breathing	Single item + SJWQ craving subscale	CB intervention vs. control comparison Immediately post-intervention, larger reduction in ‘strength of urges to smoke’ (F(1, 96) = 16.1, p < 0.001), “craving a cigarette now” (F(1, 96) = 16.1, p < 0.001), and “desire to smoke now” (F(1, 96) = 6.6, p = 0.012). Means and SDs were not reported. At 24 h follow-up, no craving reductions found except for participants who reported practicing yogic breathing “often” or “very often” (F(1, 46) = 4.0, p = 0.048)

^*Same participants were randomized to control and treatment conditions. CB, controlled breathing; CCQB, cocaine craving questionnaire-brief; D, Cohen's d; d_ppc2, effect size based on pooled pretest standard deviation; SJWQ, Shiffman and Jarvik smoking withdrawal symptom questionnaire; VAS, visual analog scale.