Finding number	Summary of review finding	Studies contributing to the review finding	Methodological limitations	Coherence	Relevance	Adequacy	CERQual assessment (confidence in the findings)	Explanation of CERQual assessment
Factors affecting implementation
Awareness‐raising among healthcare providers and women
1	The benefits of labour companionship may not be recognised by providers, women, or their partners.	Abushaikha 2013; Afulani 2018; Alexander 2014; Brüggemann 2014; Coley 2016; Pafs 2016	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with reflexivity, recruitment and research design	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevancy	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 6 contributing studies with moderately thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological limitations, coherence, and relevancy, and moderate concerns regarding adequacy
2	Labour companionship was sometimes viewed as non‐essential or less important compared to other aspects of care, and therefore deprioritised due to limited resources to spend on 'expendables'.	Akhavan 2012b; Brüggemann 2014; Lagendyk 2005; Premberg 2011	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding recruitment, reflexivity and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts and only in middle‐ and high‐income countries	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 4 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and serious concerns regarding relevance and adequacy
Creating an enabling environment
3	Formal changes to existing policies regarding allowing companions on the labour ward may be necessary prior to implementing labour companionship models at a facility level.	Abushaikha 2013; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding research design, recruitment and reflexivity	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevance due to limited evidence from limited contexts (2 countries in the Middle East)	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 2 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and serious concerns regarding relevance and adequacy
4	In settings where companions are allowed, there can be gaps between a policy or law allowing companionship, and the actual practice of allowing all women who want companionship to have a companion present.	Brüggemann 2014; Kaye 2014	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment and research design	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevance due to limited evidence from limited contexts (2 low and middle income countries)	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 2 contributing studies with thick data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and adequacy, and serious concerns regarding relevance
5	Providers, women and male partners highlighted physical space constraints of the labour wards as a key barrier to labour companionship as it was perceived that privacy could not be maintained and wards would become overcrowded.	Abushaikha 2013; Afulani 2018; Brüggemann 2014; Harte 2016; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Qian 2001; Sapkota 2012; Shimpuku 2013	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with reflexivity, recruitment, research design, ethical considerations, and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance, may be more relevant in LMIC settings with overcrowded wards	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 8 contributing studies with reasonably thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding relevance and coherence, and moderate concerns regarding adequacy and methodological limitations
6	Some providers, women and male partners were concerned that the presence of a labour companion may increase the risk of transmitting infection in the labour room.	Abushaikha 2013; Brüggemann 2014; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Qian 2001	Moderate concerns regarding methodological considerations due to issues regarding recruitment, reflexivity, research design and analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to limited range of contexts only in middle‐income countries	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 4 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and relevance, and serious concerns regarding adequacy
Training, supervision, and integration with care team
7	Some providers were resistant to integrate companions or doulas into maternity services, and provided several explanations for their reluctance. Providers felt that lay companions lacked purpose and boundaries, increased provider workloads, arrived unprepared, and could be in the way.	Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Brüggemann 2014; Horstman 2017; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Kaye 2014; Lagendyk 2005; Torres 2013	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations, due to issues with reflexivity, recruitment strategies, and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Very minor concerns regarding relevance	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 7 contributing studies with reasonably thick data	High confidence	Due to very minor concerns regarding relevance, minor concerns regarding methodological limitations and coherence , and moderate concerns regarding adequacy
8	In most cases, male partners were not integrated into antenatal care or training sessions before birth. Where they were included in antenatal preparation, they felt that they learned comfort and support measures to assist their partners, but that these measures were often challenging to implement throughout the duration of labour and birth.	Abushaikha 2013; Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Chandler 1997; Ledenfors 2016; Sapkota 2012; Somers‐Smith 1999	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding recruitment, reflexivity, research design and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 6 contributing studies with relatively thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and relevance, and serious concerns regarding adequacy
9	In settings where lay companionship or doula care were available, providers were not well trained on how to integrate the companion as an active or important member of the woman’s support team.	Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Brüggemann 2014; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Kaye 2014; Lagendyk 2005; Torres 2013	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with research design, reflexivity, recruitment and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevancy due to evidence from a limited range of contexts	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 6 contributing studies with moderately thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological limitations, coherence and relevance, and moderate concerns regarding adequacy
10	Some doulas felt that they were not well integrated into decision‐making or care co‐ordination by the healthcare providers, and were sometimes ignored by healthcare providers.	Berg 2006; McLeish 2018; Stevens 2011; Torres 2013	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, research design and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevance due to limited evidence from limited contexts (all high‐income countries)	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 4 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations, and serious concerns regarding relevance and adequacy
11	Most healthcare providers believed that having a lay companion support a woman throughout labour and childbirth was beneficial to the woman and worked well when companions were integrated into the model of care. However, when lay companions were not well engaged or integrated, conflict could arise as they may be perceived as an additional burden for healthcare providers to manage their presence, and provide ongoing direction and support.	Brüggemann 2014; Harte 2016; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Khresheh 2010; Maher 2004; Qian 2001	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, ethical considerations and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 6 contributing studies with reasonably thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations, relevance, and adequacy
12	Most midwives believed that doulas played a collaborative role in supporting women during childbirth, and were assets to the team who provided more woman‐centred, needs‐led support. However, some midwives found it difficult to engage as carers with women when doulas were present, as they felt that doulas encroached on their carer role.	Akhavan 2012b; Lundgren 2010; McLeish 2018; Stevens 2011	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, research design and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevance due to limited evidence from limited contexts (all high‐income countries)	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 4 contributing studies with reasonably thick data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and adequacy, and serious concerns regarding relevance
13	Lay companions received little or no training on how to support the woman during labour and childbirth, which made them feel frustrated.	Kululanga 2012; Sapkota 2012	Minor concerns regarding methodological considerations due to issues with reflexivity and recruitment	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevancy due to partial evidence from a limited range of contexts and only low‐income countries	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 2 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological considerations and coherence, and serious concerns regarding relevancy and adequacy
14	Some men felt that they were actively excluded, left out, or not involved in their female partner's care. They were unsure of where they fit in to support the woman, and felt that their presence was tolerated but not necessary.	Bäckström 2011; Chandler 1997; Kaye 2014; Kululanga 2012; Longworth 2011; Somers‐Smith 1999	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, research design, and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts (predominantly Europe, North America, and Africa)	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 6 contributing studies with relatively thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations, relevance and adequacy
Roles that companions play
Informational support
15	Women valued the non‐pharmacological pain relief measures that companions helped to facilitate, including a soothing touch (holding hands, massage and counter pressure), breathing, and relaxation techniques.	Campero 1998; Chapman 1990; Dodou 2014; de Souza 2010; Fathi 2017; Hunter 2012; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Khresheh 2010; Lundgren 2010; McLeish 2018; Sapkota 2012; Somers‐Smith 1999; Thorstensson 2008; Torres 2015	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with reflexivity, data analysis, recruitment strategy, and research design	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance, although this finding was primarily found in high‐ and middle‐income settings	Minor concerns regarding adequacy due to 14 contributing studies with reasonably thick data	High confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding adequacy, coherence, and relevance, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations
16	Doulas played an important role in providing information to women about the process of childbirth, duration of labour, and reasons for medical interventions. They bridged communication gaps between clinical staff and women, and facilitated a more actively engaged environment where women were encouraged to ask questions.	Akhavan 2012a; Akhavan 2012b; Berg 2006; Campero 1998; Darwin 2016; Gilliland 2011; Horstman 2017; LaMancuso 2016; McGarry 2016; McLeish 2018; Schroeder 2005; Torres 2013; Torres 2015	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, ethical considerations, data analysis and research design	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to limited evidence from limited contexts (predominantly high‐income countries where doula studies took place)	Minor concerns regarding adequacy due to 13 contributing studies with moderately thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence and adequacy and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and relevance.
17	Lay companions also played a role in providing informational support to women or acting as the woman's voice during labour and childbirth. This usually took the form of acting as an intermediary by relaying, repeating, or explaining information from the healthcare provider to the woman, and from the woman to the healthcare provider.	Alexander 2014; Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Khresheh 2010; Price 2007; Qian 2001; Sapkota 2012	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, ethical considerations and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 6 contributing studies with moderately thin data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological limitations, coherence and relevance, and moderate concerns regarding adequacy
18	Companions played an important role to help facilitate communication between the woman and healthcare providers, including representing the woman's interests and speaking on her behalf when she was unable to do so. They helped to relay information between the woman and healthcare provider, such as asking questions and setting boundaries.	Akhavan 2012b; Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Darwin 2016; Gentry 2010; Hardeman 2016; Horstman 2017; Hunter 2012; Khresheh 2010; Koumouitzes‐Douvia 2006; LaMancuso 2016; Lundgren 2010; McGarry 2016; McLeish 2018; Premberg 2011; Price 2007; Stevens 2011; Torres 2015	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, research design, ethical considerations and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts (predominantly high‐income countries)	Minor concerns regarding adequacy	Moderate concerns	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence and adequacy, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and relevance.
Advocacy
19	Companions played a role to bear witness to the process of childbirth. They shared the childbirth experience with the woman by being with her, and were viewed as observers who could monitor, reflect, and report on what transpired throughout labour and childbirth, such as witnessing pain, the birth process, and the woman's transformation to motherhood.	Afulani 2018; Alexander 2014; Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Dodou 2014; Horstman 2017; Hunter 2012; Longworth 2011; Price 2007; Sapkota 2012	Minor concerns regarding methodological considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance	Minor concerns regarding adequacy	High confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological considerations, coherence, relevance and adequacy
Practical support
20	Companions provided physical support to women throughout labour and childbirth, such as giving them a massage and holding their hand. Companions encouraged and helped women to mobilise throughout labour or to change positions, such as squatting or standing, and provided physical support to go to the bathroom or adjust clothing.	Afulani 2018; Chandler 1997; Chapman 1990; de Souza 2010; Fathi 2017; Hunter 2012; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Khresheh 2010; Koumouitzes‐Douvia 2006; McLeish 2018; Premberg 2011; Price 2007; Sapkota 2012; Shimpuku 2013; Torres 2013	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding research design, reflexivity, recruitment, ethical considerations, and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance	Minor concerns regarding adequacy	High confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, relevance and adequacy, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations
21	Companions played an important role to assist healthcare providers to care for women by observing and identifying potential issues throughout labour and childbirth.	Akhavan 2012b; Alexander 2014; Khresheh 2010; Qian 2001; Sapkota 2012; Shimpuku 2013	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding research design, reflexivity, recruitment, ethical considerations and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 6 contributing studies with moderately thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence and relevance, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and adequacy
22	Some healthcare providers and doulas felt that shortcomings in maternity services could be potentially addressed by doulas or lay companions.	Afulani 2018; Akhavan 2012b; Stevens 2011	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with research design, recruitment, reflexivity and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevance due to partial evidence from a limited range of contexts (Australia, Kenya and Sweden)	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 3 contributing studies with thin data	Very low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations, and serious concerns regarding relevance and adequacy
Emotional support
23	Women valued that companions and doulas helped to facilitate their feeling in control during labour and gave them confidence in their abilities to give birth.	Berg 2006; Campero 1998; Chapman 1990; Darwin 2016; Dodou 2014; Fathi 2017; Gilliland 2011; Hunter 2012; Ledenfors 2016; Price 2007; Sapkota 2012	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with reflexivity, recruitment, research design and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to limited evidence from Africa, Asia and low‐income countries	Minor concerns regarding adequacy due to 11 contributing studies with reasonably thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding adequacy and coherence, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and relevance
24	Companions often provided emotional support to women through the use of praise and reassurance. They acknowledged the women's efforts and concerns, and provided reinforcement through verbal encouragement and affirmations.	Abushaikha 2012; Alexander 2014; Bäckström 2011; Berg 2006; Bondas‐Salonen 1998; de Souza 2010; Fathi 2017; Gentry 2010; Gilliland 2011; Hardeman 2016; Harte 2016; Horstman 2017; Hunter 2012; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Khresheh 2010; Koumouitzes‐Douvia 2006; Ledenfors 2016; Lundgren 2010; McGarry 2016; McLeish 2018; Premberg 2011; Price 2007; Sapkota 2012; Schroeder 2005; Somers‐Smith 1999; Thorstensson 2008; Torres 2013; Torres 2015	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, ethical considerations, and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance	Very minor concerns regarding adequacy	High confidence	Due to very minor concerns regarding adequacy, minor concerns regarding coherence and relevance, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations
25	The continuous physical presence of someone caring was an important role that companions played, particularly in settings where continuous midwifery care was not available or not practiced. The continuous presence of the companion signalled to the woman the availability of support when needed, and helped to pass the time throughout labour.	Abushaikha 2012; Afulani 2018; Berg 2006; Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Campero 1998; Darwin 2016; Dodou 2014; Koumouitzes‐Douvia 2006; Lundgren 2010; McLeish 2018; Price 2007; Sapkota 2012; Somers‐Smith 1999; Stevens 2011; Thorstensson 2008; Torres 2015	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, ethical considerations and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts (predominantly high‐income settings in Europe and North America)	Minor concerns regarding adequacy	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence and adequacy, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and relevance
Experiences of companionship
Women’s experiences
26	Women stated different preferences for their desired companion, including their husband or male partner, sister, mother, mother‐in‐law, doula, or a combination of different people. Regardless of which person they preferred, women who wanted a labour companion present during labour and childbirth expressed the need for this person to be a caring, compassionate, and trustworthy advocate.	Abushaikha 2012; Afulani 2018; Akhavan 2012a; Alexander 2014; Berg 2006; Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Campero 1998; Dodou 2014; Fathi 2017; Hunter 2012; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Khresheh 2010; Lundgren 2010; Pafs 2016; Price 2007; Qian 2001; Sapkota 2012; Shimpuku 2013; Somers‐Smith 1999; Torres 2015	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with recruitment, reflexivity, ethical considerations, and data analysis	Very minor concerns regarding coherence	Very minor concerns regarding relevance	Very minor concerns regarding adequacy	High confidence	Due to very minor concerns regarding coherence, relevance and adequacy, and minor concerns regarding methodological limitations
27	Women described the desire for a happy and healthy birth for both themselves and their babies. Support provided by doulas and companions paved the way for them to have a positive birth experience, as the support facilitated them to feel safe, strong, confident and secure.	Abushaikha 2012; Abushaikha 2013; Akhavan 2012a; Alexander 2014; Berg 2006; Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Campero 1998; Darwin 2016; Dodou 2014; Gilliland 2011; Hunter 2012; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Khresheh 2010; Koumouitzes‐Douvia 2006; Ledenfors 2016; Lundgren 2010; McGarry 2016; Price 2007; Sapkota 2012; Schroeder 2005; Torres 2015	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, research design, ethical considerations and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance	Minor concerns regarding adequacy	High confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, relevance, and adequacy, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations
28	Immigrant, refugee, and foreign‐born women resettled in high‐income countries highlighted how community‐based doulas (e.g. someone from their ethnic/religious/cultural community trained as a doula) were an important way for them to receive culturally competent care.	Akhavan 2012a; Hardeman 2016; LaMancuso 2016; Stevens 2011	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with research design, recruitment, reflexivity and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from a limited range of contexts	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 4 contributing studies with moderately thick data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and relevance, and serious concerns due to adequacy.
29	Some women were concerned that their male partners would have diminished sexual attraction to them if they witnessed the birth. Likewise, some men believed that it is taboo to see a female partner give birth because of the risk of a loss of sexual interest.	Abushaikha 2013; Afulani 2018; Kululanga 2012; Pafs 2016; Sapkota 2012	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts predominantly in low‐ and middle‐income country settings	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 5 contributing studies with thin data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological limitations and coherence, moderate concerns regarding relevance, and serious concerns regarding adequacy
30	Some women felt embarrassed or shy to have a male partner as a companion present throughout labour and childbirth.	Abushaikha 2013; Afulani 2018; Alexander 2014; Sapkota 2012	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts predominantly in LMIC settings	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 4 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological limitations and coherence, moderate concerns regarding relevance, and serious concerns regarding adequacy
31	Women who did not have a companion may view the lack of support as a form of suffering, stress and fear that made their birth experience more challenging. These women detailed experiences of poor quality of care that included mistreatment, poor communication, and neglect that made them feel vulnerable and alone.	Afulani 2018; Alexander 2014; Campero 1998; Chadwick 2014; Fathi 2017; Khresheh 2010; Pafs 2016	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts predominantly in LMIC settings	Minor concerns regarding adequacy due to 7 contributing studies with reasonably thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological limitations, coherence, and adequacy, and moderate concerns regarding relevance
32	Some women described having their male partners present as an essential part of the birth process, which facilitated bonding between the father and the baby, the couple, and as a family.	Abushaikha 2012; Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Price 2007	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts predominantly in middle‐ and high‐income settings	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 3 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological limitations and coherence, moderate concerns regarding relevance, and serious concerns regarding adequacy
33	Most women who had a doula present described doulas as motherly, sisterly, or like family, suggesting a high level of relational intimacy.	Berg 2006; Coley 2016; Hunter 2012; Koumouitzes‐Douvia 2006; McGarry 2016	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts in high‐income settings only	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 5 contributing studies with moderately thick data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and adequacy, and serious concerns regarding relevance
Male partner’s experiences
34	Male partners had three main motivations for acting as a labour companion for their female partner: curiosity, woman’s request, and peer encouragement, and were in agreement that ultimately it should be the woman’s choice about who is allowed to be present.	Bondas‐Salonen 1998; Chapman 1990; Kululanga 2012; Longworth 2011; Pafs 2016; Sapkota 2012; Somers‐Smith 1999	Minor concerns regarding methodological limitations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 5 contributing studies with relatively thin data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological limitations, coherence, and relevance, and moderate concerns regarding adequacy
35	Men who acted as labour companions for their female partners felt that their presence made a positive impact on themselves as individuals.	Kululanga 2012; Sapkota 2012	Minor concerns regarding methodological considerations due to issues with reflexivity and recruitment	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevancy due to partial evidence from a limited range of contexts and only low‐income countries	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 2 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological considerations and coherence, and serious concerns regarding relevancy and adequacy.
36	Men who acted as labour companions for their female partners felt that their presence made a positive impact on their relationship with their female partner and the new baby.	Dodou 2014; Kululanga 2012; Sapkota 2012	Minor concerns regarding methodological considerations due to issues with reflexivity and recruitment	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevancy due to partial evidence from a limited range of contexts and only LMICs	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 3 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological considerations and coherence, and serious concerns regarding relevancy and adequacy.
37	Men who acted as labour companions for their female partners may feel scared, anxious or helpless when witnessing their partners in pain during labour and childbirth.	Fathi 2017; Kaye 2014; Kululanga 2012; Sapkota 2012	Minor concerns regarding methodological considerations due to issues with reflexivity, research design and recruitment	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevancy due to partial evidence from a limited range of contexts and only low‐income countries	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 4 contributing studies with moderately thick data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding methodological considerations and coherence, and serious concerns regarding relevancy and adequacy.
38	Some lay companions (both male and female) were deeply impacted by witnessing a woman's pain during labour. Observing this pain caused feelings of frustration and fear, as they felt that there was nothing that they could do to help alleviate their pain.	Abushaikha 2013; Chandler 1997; Chapman 1990; Fathi 2017; Kabakian‐Khasholian 2015; Kululanga 2012; Sapkota 2012	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding reflexivity, recruitment, research design, data analysis and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Minor concerns regarding relevance	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 7 contributing studies with relatively thin data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence and relevance, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and adequacy
39	Some male partners felt that they were not well integrated into the care team or decision‐making. These men felt that their presence was tolerated by healthcare providers, but was not a necessary role. They relied on cues from the woman and healthcare provider for when and how to give support, but were often afraid to ask questions to avoid being labelled as difficult.	Bäckström 2011; Chandler 1997; Kaye 2014; Kululanga 2012; Longworth 2011; Somers‐Smith 1999	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding research design, reflexivity, recruitment, and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts (predominantly high‐income countries)	Moderate concerns regarding adequacy due to 6 contributing studies with relatively thick data	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations, relevance, and adequacy.
Doulas’ experiences
40	Doulas often met with women, and sometimes their partners, prior to the birth to establish a relationship with them. This helped to manage expectations, and mentally and physically prepare the woman and her partner for childbirth.	Akhavan 2012b; Berg 2006; Coley 2016; Darwin 2016; Koumouitzes‐Douvia 2006; Lundgren 2010; Shlafer 2015; Stevens 2011; Torres 2015	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues regarding research design, recruitment, reflexivity, and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts where doula studies took place (high‐income countries)	Minor concerns regarding adequacy	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence and adequacy, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and relevance
41	Doulas believed that one of their key responsibilities was to build rapport and mutual trust with the woman, in order to improve her birth experience. This relationship was foundational for the doulas to give effective support, and for the women to feel comfortable enough to let go. Doulas built rapport by communicating, providing practical support, comforting and relating to the woman.	Berg 2006; Coley 2016; de Souza 2010; Gilliland 2011; Hunter 2012; Koumouitzes‐Douvia 2006; McGarry 2016; Shlafer 2015; Thorstensson 2008	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with research design, reflexivity, recruitment, ethical considerations, and data analysis	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Moderate concerns regarding relevance due to evidence from limited contexts (predominantly high‐income settings in Europe and North America)	Minor concerns regarding adequacy	Moderate confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence and adequacy, and moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations and relevance.
42	Doulas found that the experience of providing support to women in labour could have a positive personal impact on themselves. Some found that acting as a doula built their self‐confidence, made them feel like they were making a difference, and provided a sense of fulfilment.	Hardeman 2016; Hunter 2012; McGarry 2016; Thorstensson 2008	Moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations due to issues with recruitment, reflexivity and ethical considerations	Minor concerns regarding coherence	Serious concerns regarding relevance due to limited evidence from limited contexts (all high‐income countries)	Serious concerns regarding adequacy due to 4 contributing studies with thin data	Low confidence	Due to minor concerns regarding coherence, moderate concerns regarding methodological limitations, and serious concerns regarding relevance and adequacy
LMICs: low‐ and middle‐income countries