TABLE 1.
Characteristics of the Sample of 15,342 Medicare Beneficiaries: Re-entry Group (N = 7,671) and Never-Incarcerated Comparison Group (N = 7.671)
| Characteristics n (%) or mean (SD) | Re-entry (N = 7,671) | Never Incarcerated (N = 7,671) | t value/χ2 | df, p valuea |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Demographicb | ||||
| Age at release/match time, years, mean (SD) | 62.85(7.17) | 62.19(7.03) | −5.78 | 15,334, <0.001 |
| Female | 100(1.30) | 100(1.30) | n/a | n/a |
| Race | n/a | n/a | ||
| Non-Hispanic white | 4,794 (62.50) | 4,794 (62.50) | ||
| Non-Hispanic black | 2,584 (33.69) | 2,584 (33.69) | ||
| Hispanic/Other | 293 (3.82) | 293 (3.82) | ||
| Mean income (SD)c | 51,989.98 (12,846.54) | 51,962.96 (12,792.69) | 0.13 | 15,325, 0.896 |
| >25% college educationc | 3,480 (45.37) | 3,463 (45.14) | 0.08 | 1, 0.783 |
| Medicare status | n/a | n/a | ||
| ≥65 years without ESRD | 3,900 (50.84) | 3,900 (50.84) | ||
| ≥65 years with ESRD | 28 (0.37) | 28 (0.37) | ||
| Disabled without ESRD | 3,712(48.39) | 3,712 (48.39) | ||
| Disabled with ESRD | 31 (0.40) | 31 (0.40) | ||
| ESRD only | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | ||
| Chronic medical conditions | ||||
| Hypertension | 5,642 (73.55) | 5,986 (78.03) | 42.04 | 1, <0.001 |
| Myocardial infarction | 758 (9.88) | 688 (8.97) | 3.74 | 1, 0.053 |
| Congestive heart failure | 906(11.81) | 958 (12.49) | 1.65 | 1, 0.199 |
| Stroke | 1,111 (14.48) | 1,236 (16.11) | 7.86 | 1, 0.005 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 2,445 (31.87) | 3,163 (41.23) | 144.89 | 1, <0.001 |
| Arthritis | 181 (2.36) | 161 (2.10) | 1.20 | 1, 0.274 |
| Hip fracture | 235 (3.06) | 187 (2.44) | 5.61 | 1, 0.018 |
| Chronic lung disease | 2,886 (37.62) | 2,413 (31.46) | 64.50 | 1, <0.001 |
| Cancer | 1,192 (15.54) | 1,453 (18.94) | 31.12 | 1, <0.001 |
| Liver disease | 515 (6.71) | 313 (4.08) | 52.09 | 1, <0.001 |
| HIV/AIDS | 200 (2.61) | 132 (1.72) | 14.24 | 1, <0.001 |
| Hepatitis C | 1,601 (20.87) | 719 (9.37) | 395.05 | 1, <0.001 |
| Sexually transmitted disease | 630 (8.21) | 238 (3.10) | 187.65 | 1, <0.001 |
| Sum of above 13, mean (SD) | 2.39 (1.62) | 2.30 (1.49) | −3.40 | 15,340, <0.001 |
| Psychiatric disorders | ||||
| Any Mood | 4,264 (55.59) | 3,467 (45.20) | 165.62 | 1, <0.001 |
| Depressiond | 3,724 (48.55) | 3,122 (40.70) | 95.59 | 1, <0.001 |
| Dysthymia | 521 (6.79) | 510 (6.65) | 0.13 | 1, 0.723 |
| Bipolar disorder | 1,344 (17.52) | 608 (7.93) | 317.96 | 1, <0.001 |
| Any Anxiety | 2,488 (32.43) | 2,011 (26.22) | 71.56 | 1, <0.001 |
| Post-traumatic stress disorder | 2,114 (27.56) | 1,690 (22.03) | 62.84 | 1, <0.001 |
| GAD | 460 (6.00) | 368 (4.80) | 10.81 | 1, 0.001 |
| Panic | 182 (2.37) | 169 (2.20) | 0.49 | 1, 0.483 |
| Phobia | 98(1.28) | 112 (1.46) | 0.95 | 1,0.331 |
| Schizophreniae | 1,213 (15.81) | 583 (7.60) | 250.29 | 1, <0.001 |
| Primary Psychotic Illnessesf | 1,618 (21.09) | 785 (10.23) | 342.39 | 1, <0.001 |
| Any SUDs | 5,529 (72.08) | 3,510 (45.76) | 1,097.71 | 1, <0.001 |
| Alcohol | 3,463 (45.14) | 1,372 (17.89) | 1,320.43 | 1, <0.001 |
| Drug | 3,218 (41.95) | 1,101 (14.35) | 1,444.24 | 1, <0.001 |
| Tobacco dependence | 4,188 (54.60) | 2,799 (36.49) | 507.05 | 1, <0.001 |
| Any psychiatric illness | 6,459 (84.20) | 5,322 (69.38) | 472.77 | 1, <0.001 |
| Homelessness | 550 (7.17) | 126 (1.64) | 278.20 | 1, <0.001 |
| Traumatic brain injury | 920 (11.99) | 477 (6.22) | 154.55 | 1, <0.001 |
Notes: ESRD: end-stage renal disease; GAD: generalized anxiety disorder; SUD: substance use disorder.
p value based on unpaired t test for continuous variables and χ2 test for categorical variables, comparing across re-entry status.
Variables matched on year of release from a correctional facility, age (±1 year), sex, race (non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, Hispanic/Other), residential ZIP code, and Medicare eligibility status.
ZIP code tabulation area from 2013 census.
Depression includes major depression or depression NOS.
Schizophrenia includes schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (all-inclusive ICD-9 codes: 295.0–295.4 and 295.6–295.9).
Primary psychotic illnesses include ICD-9 codes 297.1 (delusional), 298.8 and 298.9 (brief psychotic and other psychotic), 295.9 (unspecified schizophrenia), 295.7 (schizoaffective), 295.4 (schizophreniform), 293.81 and 293.82 (psychosis due to medical condition).