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. 2019 Mar 21;16(3):e1002766. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002766

Table 2. Baseline characteristics of mothers and children in the early child development substudy.

Baseline characteristica SOCb IYCFb WASHb WASH + IYCFb
Woman assessed, N 383 397 415 444
Children assessed, N 387 398 421 449
Women completing baseline visit, N 349 368 402 431
Household characteristics
Size, median (IQR) [n] 5 (3,6) [363] 5 (3,6) [379] 4 (3,6) [398] 5 (4,6) [419]
Wealth quintilec, percent [n]
    Lowest 17.2 [66] 13.1 [52] 17.8 [74] 16.2 [72]
    Second 18.3 [70] 15.9 [63] 21.0 [87] 19.8 [88]
    Middle 18.0 [69] 20.4 [81] 20.5 [85] 20.3 [90]
    Fourth 19.3 [74] 20.4 [81] 20.0 [83] 21.4 [95]
    Highest 18.0 [69] 22.4 [89] 17.4 [72] 19.1 [85]
Electricity
Power grid, percent [n] 3.2 [11] 5.0 [18] 2.7 [11] 1.4 [6]
Other power, percent [n]:
    Generator 2.3 [9] 3.6 [14] 4.2 [17] 3.0 [13]
    Solar 68.4 [262] 70.3 [279] 68.7 [285] 68.8 [305]
    No electricity 29.3 [112] 26.1 [104] 26.1 [108] 28.2 [125]
Sanitation
Household members who openly defecate (all)d, percent [n/N] 49.0 [768/1,566] 49.7 [870/1,752] 48.3 [874/1,809] 45.3 [893/1,972]
Household members who openly defecate (by age group), percent [n/N]
    0 to <3 years 54.8 [57/104] 60.5 [72/119] 58.5 [55/94] 51.1 [68/133]
    3 to <6 years 67.6 [100/148] 56.5 [91/161] 51.2 [106/207] 50.0 [105/210]
    6 to <18 years 51.5 [205/398] 50.4 [205/407] 50.1 [208/415] 48.8 [238/488]
    18 to <70 years 45.6 [319/700] 49.8 [379/761] 46.2 [377/818] 44.6 [391/877]
    >70 years 36.8 [7/19] 33.3 [7/21] 35.7 [5/14] 34.8 [8/23]
Any latrine at household, percent [n] 34.3 [118] 39.7 [143] 38.3 [148] 38.0 [159]
    Improved latrine at household, percent [n] 30.5 [105] 35.6 [128] 34.4 [132] 33.2 [139]
    Improved latrine with well-trodden path, percent [n] 25.9 [89] 31.9 [115] 30.0 [115] 30.3 [127]
    Improved latrine with well-trodden path and not shared, percent [n] 24.3 [82] 27.9 [95] 26.9 [99] 27.6 [112]
Water
Main source of household drinking water is improved, percent [n] 64.1 [220] 63.4 [229] 58.7 [229] 64.9 [272]
Treat drinking water to make it safer, percent [n] 17.8 [60] 15.2 [53] 11.7 [45] 11.5 [48]
One-way walk time to fetch water (min), median (IQR) [n] 10 (5, 15) [343] 7 (4, 15) [358] 10 (5, 20) [389] 10 (5, 15) [419]
Per capita water volume collected past 24 h (l), mean (SD) [n] 9.5 (9.5) [287] 9.9 (8.9) [298] 9.8 (11.8) [333] 9.1 (7.1) [343]
Hygiene
Handwashing station at household, percent [n] 5.0 [16] 2.9 [10] 13.5 [52] 14.4 [57]
    Handwashing station with water, percent [n] 3.4 [11] 0.6 [2] 4.4 [17] 3.3 [13]
    Handwashing station with water and rubbing agent, percent [n] 2.2 [7] 0.0 [0] 0.8 [3] 1.3 [5]
Improved floore, percent [n] 54.5 [188] 52.8 [190] 54.8 [216] 56.6 [240]
Number of chickens, median (IQR) [n] 5 (2, 10) [347] 7 (3, 12) [366] 5 (2, 10) [398] 5 (2, 10) [431]
Livestock observed inside the house, percent [n] 38.8 [135] 43.4 [159] 38.8 [155] 37.5 [160]
Feces observed in the yard, percent [n] 32.5 [112] 44.1 [160] 31.7 [126] 26.0 [110]
Diet quality and food security
Household meets minimum dietary diversity scoref 39.9 [122] 46.3 [144] 39.6 [141] 40.8 [153]
Coping Strategies Indexg, median (IQR) [n] 1 (0, 8) [344] 0 (0, 7) [353] 1 (0, 9) [395] 1 (0, 6) [418]
Maternal characteristics
Age (y), mean (SD) [n] 26.2 (8.5) [329] 26.0 (7.4) [350] 26.9 (8.1) [382] 26.8 (7.2) [403]
Height (cm), mean (SD) [n] 160.3 (5.2) [374] 160.7 (6.4) [386] 160.0 (6.0) [404] 160.3 (5.7) [431]
MUAC (cm), mean (SD) [n] 26.4 (3.0) [379] 26.4 (2.6) [391] 26.6 (3.9) [414] 26.5 (2.8) [441]
Completed schooling (y), mean (SD) [n] 9.7 (1.8) [363] 9.7 (2.3) [376] 9.5 (1.6) [394] 9.6 (2.1) [416]
Parity, median (IQR) [n] 2 (1, 3) [272] 2 (1, 3) [293] 2 (1, 3) [297] 2 (1, 3) [332]
Married, percent [n] 95.5 [343] 94.9 [354] 95.7 [376] 96.9 [402]
Employed, percent [n] 7.8 [27] 11.3 [41] 9.7 [39] 8.9 [38]
Religion, percent [n]
    Apostolic 53.8 [206] 47.5 [189] 51.6 [214] 52.0 [231]
    Other Christian (Pentecostal, Catholic, other Christian) 44.8 [172] 51.4 [204] 43.6 [181] 45.2 [201]
    Other religion (Muslim and other) 1.4 [5] 1.1 [4] 4.8 [20] 2.8 [12]
Maternal capabilitiesh
    Gender norms and attitudes, mean (SD) [n] 2.31 (1.12) [342] 2.34 (0.94) [364] 2.26 (0.94) [402] 2.12 (0.94) [427]
    Perceived social support, mean (SD) [n] 3.64 (0.57) [338] 3.60 (0.66) [358] 3.59 (0.66) [392] 3.61 (.68) [420]
    Perceived physical health, mean (SD) [n] 3.43 (0.89) [293] 3.43 (0.77) [323] 3.40 (1.18) [358] 3.39 (1.02) [362]
    Mothering self-efficacy, mean (SD) [n] 4.00 (0.36) [344] 3.95 (0.40) [357] 3.99 (0.41) [395] 3.98 (0.41) [422]
    Perceived time stress, mean (SD) [n] 2.63 (1.01) [338] 2.63 (0.66) [358] 2.67 (0.88) [393] 2.70 (0.87) [423]
    Decision-making autonomy, median (IQR) [n] 5 (4, 5) [319] 5 (4, 5) [327] 5 (3, 5) [350] 5 (3, 5) [387]
Infant characteristics
Female, percent [n] 54.0 [209] 49.5 [197] 48.2 [203] 49.9 [224]
Birth weight (kg), mean (SD) [n] 3.08 (0.61) [366] 3.08 (0.39) [381] 3.14 (0.52) [399] 3.11 (0.43) [427]
Birth weight < 2,500 g, percent [n] 10.7 [41] 6.8 [25] 8.5 [34] 7.3 [31]
Institutional delivery, percent [n] 88.8 [325] 88.7 [331] 89.5 [349] 90.1 [381]
Vaginal delivery, percent [n] 92.5 [345] 93.7 [358] 93.1 [375] 92.8 [401]

aBaseline for mothers was 2 weeks after consent (approximately 14 weeks’ gestation). Baseline for infants was at birth.

bSOC, standard of care; IYCF, infant and young child feeding; WASH, water, sanitation, and hygiene.

cPer [33].

dOpen defecation among all household members.

eImproved floor defined as concrete, brick, cement, or tile. Unimproved floor defined as mud, earth, sand, or dung.

fPer [45].

gCoping Strategies Index is a measure of household food insecurity, as described in [46].

hPer [47].

MUAC, mid-upper arm circumference.