Table 1.

Overview of studies associating elevation of plasma levels of βDG with immune activation and immune dysfunction in PLWH.

References (country)	Sample size	Study populations	Major findings
Morris et al. (15) (USA)	132	Chronic ART-treated PLWH; cross-sectional analysis	βDG was elevated in the plasma of PLWH and associated with plasma levels of IL-8, TNF-α, and frequency of CD38+ and HLA-DR+ CD8+ T cells. Elevated βDG was associated with cardiopulmonary dysfunction.
Hoenigl et al. (17) (USA)	41	Chronic ART-treated PLWH; cross-sectional analysis	Plasma level of βDG was positively associated with plasma levels of neopterin and IL-6.
Hoenigl et al. (19) (USA)	11	PLWH in early stage of infection, before and after ART; cross-sectional analysis	Elevated plasma levels of βDG was inversely correlated with abundance of Lactobacillales in the distal gut.
Hoenigl et al. (16) (USA)	21	Chronic ART-treated PLWH; cross-sectional analysis	βDG was elevated in the plasma and CSF of PLWH and positively associated with neurocognitive dysfunction.
Hoenigl et al. (18) (USA)	451	PLWH before and after ART; cross-sectional analysis	Multivariate analysis showed that pre-event plasma levels of βDG and LBP was independently associated with increased risk of non-AIDS events.
Mehraj et al. (20) (Canada)	146	PLWH in early and chronic stages, ART-treated and untreated; longitudinal and cross sectional analysis	Plasma levels of βDG was associated with plasma viral load, I-FABP, LPS, markers of IDO-1 metabolism, and frequency of Tregs. Expression of βDG-specific receptors, Dectin-1 and NKp30, was inversely correlated with plasma levels of βDG but not LPS. PLWH who initiated ART early had lower levels of plasma βDG and elevated βDG did not normalize despite long-term ART.

PLWH, People living with HIV; ART, Antiretroviral Therapy; βDG, (1→3)-β-D-Glucan; LPS, Lipopolysaccharide; LBP, LPS Binding Protein; I-FABP, Intestinal Fatty Acid Binding Protein (marker of epithelial gut damage).