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. 2016 Jan 27;8(2):32. doi: 10.3390/polym8020032

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© 2016 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons by Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Normalized permeate concentration change during Ca²⁺ pickup with N-SPVDF-PAA functionalized in convective flow mode. Inset shows the change in water flux for 200 mg/L CaCl₂ solution throughout experimental run. Feed solutions were passed through membranes using a dead-end filtration cell at 10.3 bar.