Table 5.

School-based child and adolescent depression prevention programs.

Name	References	Target age group	Aims	Type	Characteristics	Results
Penn Resiliency Program (PRP)	Gillham et al., 1990	8–15	To raise awareness of the relationship between cognition, emotion and behavior, help youngsters develop social and decision-making skills and foster optimism	U	- Cognitive-behavioral perspective - 12 sessions, each lasting 90–120 min - Contents: cognitive restructuring, maladaptive coping strategies, attributional styles, assertiveness, negotiation, relaxation, decision-making, social skills	Significant reduction in depression levels assessed using the CDI (Gillham, 1994; Gillham et al., 1995; Quayle et al., 2001; Chaplin et al., 2006; Cardemil et al., 2007) as well as in anxiety levels and behavioral problems, and fostering of wellbeing and optimism. Other universal (Pattison and Lynd-Stevenson, 2001; Gillham et al., 2007) and targeted studies (Gillham and Reivich, 1999; Roberts et al., 2003a, 2004) failed to find any evidence that the program had any impact on the variables analyzed, in either the short or long term. The targeted study by Gillham et al. (2006) found that PRP did not significantly prevent depressive disorders but significantly prevented depression, anxiety, and adjustment disorders (when combined) among high-symptom participants
Coping with Stress Course (CWSC)	Clarke et al., 1995	13–17	To challenge irrational thoughts, cope with negative moods, overcome passivity, and reach agreements with parents and peers; social skills training	T	- Target population: Adolescents with some known increased risk of depression: past episode of depression; persistent sub-diagnostic dysphoria and/or other depressive symptoms; depressed parents; pregnant, single teen mother; other known risk factors for depression - Based on Beck's (Beck et al., 1979) and Ellis' (Ellis and Harper, 1961) cognitive therapy - 15 sessions lasting 45 min and 8 sessions lasting 90 min - Contents: depression and its relationship with stress, training in cognitive restructuring skills and the modification of irrational thoughts	Significant reduction in depression levels and the risk of reappearance at posttest and during follow-up (8, 12, and 18 months) (Clarke et al., 1995, 2001; Garber et al., 2009) (depressive symptoms assessed by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale-CES-D). Participants who were currently on antidepressant medication were excluded from these studies
Aussie optimism program	Rooney et al., 2000	6–11	To intervene in risk and protection factors for depression and anxiety (cognitive, emotional, and social characteristics).	U	- Cognitive-behavioral perspective - 10 sessions, each lasting 60 min - Contents: identifying negative beliefs about oneself and one's present and future circumstances, identifying and regulating emotions, engaging in pleasurable activities, working with hierarchies of situations which generate fear and learning to relax (Rooney et al., 2013)	- Rooney et al. (2006) applied the program to 72 children aged between 8 and 9 and found both a significant reduction in depression levels (assessed using the CDI) and more positive causal attributions at posttest and during short-term follow up, although these results were not found to persist in the long term. The effect sizes observed were low (η2 = 0.09 for the symptoms of depression and η2 = 0.16 for attributional style). - The program was also found to reduce depressive symptoms (assessed using the CDI) in a study with 47 female 7th grade students, with a 6-month follow up (Quayle et al., 2001) Resourceful Adolescent Program-Adolescents (RAP-A)
Resourceful Adolescent Program- Adolescents (RAP-A)	Shochet et al., 2001	12–15	To identify and challenge irrational thoughts, provide training in social skills and problem solving and help prevent conflicts with parents and peers	U	- Cognitive-behavioral perspective - 11 sessions, each lasting 40–50 min - Contents: cognitive restructuring, problem-solving, social skills, and communication training	Significant results in preventing depression in random groups at posttest (measured using the BDI-II and RADS) but not during follow up, at least according to the BDI-II (the effect persisted according to the RADS) (Merry et al., 2004), although when non-random groups were used the results were also significant during follow up (Shochet et al., 2001)
FRIENDS	Barrett and Turner, 2001	7–16	To reduce the incidence of anxiety and depression, emotional distress and social problems, teaching children how to cope with anxiety, both now and in the future	U	- Cognitive-behavioral perspective - 10 sessions, each lasting 120 min + 2 booster sessions - Contents: one's own and other people's emotions, relaxation, trying to do your best, planning steps, making time to have fun together, friendship and family skills, being happy, etc.	Reduced anxiety levels, although the results regarding reduced depression levels are more limited (Barrett and Turner, 2001; Lowry-Webster et al., 2001; Lock and Barrett, 2003). In Barrett and Turner's study with 489 children aged between 10 and 12, the effect size for depression (measured using the CDI) at posttest was 0.09. Curiously enough, self-reported depression decreased slightly in the psychologist-led condition, while slight increases were noted in the teacher-led condition, although these increases were statistically, but not clinically, significant (Barrett and Turner, 2001)
Problem Solving for Life (PSFL)	Spence et al., 2003	13–15	Cognitive restructuring, problem solving	U	- Cognitive-behavioral perspective - 8 sessions, each lasting 45–50 min - Contents: challenging maladaptive thoughts, coping with problems	No significant results were found as regards preventing depressive symptoms (Spence et al., 2005; Sheffield et al., 2006), although an improvement was observed in all the variables studied in all study groups (those that did and those that did not participate in the program) (Sheffield et al., 2006)
Interpersonal Psychotherapy-Adolescent Skills Training (IPT-AST)	Young and Mufson, 2003	11–16	Training in social skills, coping with life transitions, and overcoming interpersonal deficits	T	- Target population: adolescents with elevated symptoms of depression - Cognitive-behavioral perspective - 10 sessions, each lasting 90 min - Contents: social and communication skills	Immediate reduction in depressive symptoms, although the benefits did not persist longer than 6 months (Horowitz et al., 2007; Young et al., 2010) (depressive symptoms assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale-CSD-D and the Children's Depression Rating Scale (CDRS)
Adolescents Coping with Emotions (ACE)	Sheffield et al., 2006	14–15	To prevent or reduce depression levels, improving coping skills, and fostering resilience	T	- Target population: adolescents with elevated symptoms of depression (those scoring in the top 20% on the combined scores, sum of standardized scores, the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies—Depression Scale (CES-D). - Cognitive-behavioral perspective - Applied by teachers - 8 sessions, each lasting 60 min - Contents: cognitive restructuring, training in social skills and assertiveness, negotiation and problem-solving skills, recognition of one's own achievements	Significant reduction in depressive symptoms and negative thoughts in girls after 6 months (Kowalenko et al., 2005), but not during the 12-month follow up (Sheffield et al., 2006). Depressive symptoms were assessed using the CDI and CES-D
FORTIUS	Méndez et al., 2013	8–13	To psychologically strengthen participants at a cognitive, emotional and behavioral level	U	−12 sessions lasting 50–60 min +2 booster sessions one month later +1 final session 3 months later - Contents: understanding and controlling negative emotions, social skills, and the ability to organize everyday activities, detection and restructuring of negative thoughts, problem solving, decision making, and positive self-instruction	No significant differences were found in depression (measured using the CDI) at posttest, although a reduction was observed during follow up (12 months) in girls (Orenes, 2015)

Type: T, targeted; U, universal.