Table 2.
County-level association between selected prescription drug monitoring programs features and hospital discharges related to overdoses of prescription opioids and heroin. 990 counties within 16 US states, 2003–2014
| Prescription Opioids | Heroin | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Median | (95%CI) | Median | (95%CI) | |
| Proactive reports to law enforcement | 1.02 | (0.99, 1.04) | 0.82 | (0.74, 0.91) |
| Proactive reports to licensing bodies | 0.97 | (0.94, 1.00) | 1.29 | (1.13, 1.47) |
| Proactive reports to prescriber/dispenser | 0.99 | (0.97, 1.01) | 1.06 | (0.99, 1.13) |
| Mandatory registration for prescribers | 0.97 | (0.93, 1.01) | 1.12 | (1.00, 1.26) |
| Mandatory access | 0.98 | (0.94, 1.02) | 1.69 | (1.49, 1.90) |
| State shares data | 1.12 | (1.10, 1.15) | 1.01 | (0.95, 1.07) |
| Weekly reporting | 0.92 | (0.90, 0.93) | 1.19 | (1.12, 1.24) |
| All drug schedules reported | 1.08 | (1.06, 1.10) | 1.09 | (1.03, 1.16) |
| Presicion for model hyperparameters | ||||
| Non-spatial random effect | 18.3 | (13.4, 24.9) | 4.6 | (3.3, 6.4) |
| CAR spatial random effect | 5.8 | (4.3, 7.9) | 2.1 | (1.4, 3.1) |
| County-level random trend | 687.5 | (597.5, 790.5) | 152.7 | (125.0, 187.1) |
| Deviance Information Criterion | 66644 | 23112 | ||
Median = Rate ratio, computed as the exp(β) of the median posterior estimates. 95%CI = 95% Credible Interval. CAR = Conditional Autoregressive.
Models adjusted for the following county-level covariates: Rate of total hospital discharges; population density (1000s of people per square mile); % 20–44, 45–64, and 65 plus years of age; % white; % male; proportion of hospital discharges related to acute pain, proportion of hospital discharged related to chronic pain; % poverty, % unemployment. Models were also adjusted for State’s status on medical marijuana law, Naloxone access laws, Good Samaritan Law, Medicaid expansion, state fixed-effect, and a linear and quadratic time trend