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. 2019 Mar 14;2019:9678098. doi: 10.1155/2019/9678098

Figure 2.

Figure 2

VPA induces M1-M2 polarization of macrophages in response to LPS. VPA polarizes macrophages from the M1 to the M2 immune phenotype in response to the stimulation with LPS by changing the cytokine profile (IL-12, IL-6, and TNF-α are reduced, while IL-10 increases), as well as the pattern of costimulatory molecules (from CD80 to CD86, and inhibiting CD40 expression). Green arrows indicate the processes, molecules, or mediators in the signaling pathway that are augmented and/or promoted by VPA. Red arrows indicate processes, molecules, or mediators in the signaling pathway that are inhibited by VPA.